Do Wisdom Teeth Cause Dental Crowding? Updated Evidence and Clinical Insights

Wisdom teeth, or third molars, typically erupt between the ages of 17 and 21, coinciding with the period when patients often notice anterior crowding of the mandibular incisors.

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This temporal association has led to the widespread belief that wisdom teeth push other teeth forward, causing malalignment. However, modern research challenges this assumption, emphasizing multifactorial causes of dental crowding.

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✅ Current Systematic Evidence

° A systematic review by Lyros et al. (2023) found no statistically significant association between the presence of mandibular third molars and late incisor crowding. The effect was minimal and lacked clinical relevance.
° Conversely, Palikaraki et al. (2024) reported a slight tendency toward increased crowding and reduced arch length in patients with third molars. However, the authors highlighted the need for stronger prospective evidence.

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✅ Observational and Clinical Studies

° Aldhorae et al. (2025), using CBCT in a Yemeni population, found no significant difference in Little’s irregularity index between patients with or without mandibular third molars
° Richardson (1982) suggested a passive role of third molars in late lower crowding, but not strong enough to justify causality.
° Demyati et al. (2024) showed that third molar angulation and lack of space might worsen preexisting crowding, but again, not as a primary cause.

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✅ Professional Opinions
A survey conducted by Gavazzi et al. (2014) among Italian orthodontists and oral surgeons revealed consensus that wisdom teeth do not exert sufficient pressure to cause significant crowding. Therefore, prophylactic extraction is not recommended solely for orthodontic reasons.

✅ Multifactorial Nature of Late Crowding
Late mandibular incisor crowding is now understood as a natural, multifactorial phenomenon, influenced by:

° Genetic and hereditary traits.
° Limited mandibular growth compared to the maxilla.
° Early loss of primary teeth.
° Oral habits during childhood.
° Physiological late crowding: even in patients without third molars, anterior teeth tend to shift with age due to arch changes and muscular forces.

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✍️ Conclusion
Wisdom teeth are not a major cause of dental crowding. Current evidence suggests their role is minimal, and prophylactic extraction should not be performed solely to prevent orthodontic relapse. Dental crowding should be seen as a multifactorial process, with genetics, growth patterns, oral habits, and natural aging playing central roles. Clinical decisions regarding third molar extraction must rely on clear indications such as pain, pericoronitis, or risk of caries, rather than unproven preventive motives.

📚 References

✔ Aldhorae, K., Ishaq, R., Alhaidary, S., Alhumaidi, A. M., Moaleem, M. M. A., Harazi, G. A., ... & Elayah, S. A. (2025). The association of third molars with mandibular incisor crowding in a group of the Yemeni population in Sana’a city: cone-beam computed tomography. BMC Oral Health.
✔ Gavazzi, M., De Angelis, D., Blasi, S., Pesce, P., & Lanteri, V. (2014). Third molars and dental crowding: different opinions of orthodontists and oral surgeons among Italian practitioners. Progress in Orthodontics, 15, 60.
✔ Lyros, I., et al. (2023). The effect of third molars on mandibular anterior crowding: A systematic review. Journal of Orthodontics.
✔ Palikaraki, G., et al. (2024). Effect of mandibular third molars on crowding of mandibular anterior teeth. Angle Orthodontist.
✔ Richardson, M. E. (1982). The role of the third molar in the cause of late lower arch crowding. Angle Orthodontist.
✔ Demyati, A. K., et al. (2024). Assessment of the relationship between impacted third molars and anterior crowding. Clinical Oral Investigations

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Nolla’s Stages: The Ultimate Guide for Dental Students

Understanding tooth development is a cornerstone of dental education, and Nolla’s Stages provide a systematic framework for assessing tooth formation. Developed by Carmen Nolla in 1960, this classification system is widely used to evaluate the developmental stages of primary and permanent teeth.

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For dental students, mastering Nolla’s Stages is essential for clinical practice, radiographic analysis, and treatment planning. This 2025 guide offers a detailed, updated exploration of Nolla’s Stages, including their application, significance, and tips for success.

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✅ What Are Nolla’s Stages?
Nolla’s Stages describe the developmental process of teeth, from initial calcification to complete root closure. The system divides tooth development into 10 stages (0–10), applicable to both primary and permanent dentition. Each stage corresponds to specific radiographic and morphological changes, making it a valuable tool for dental diagnostics, orthodontics, and pediatric dentistry.

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✅ Why Are Nolla’s Stages Important for Dental Students?

° Radiographic Interpretation: Nolla’s Stages help students analyze dental radiographs to assess tooth maturity.
° Treatment Planning: Understanding tooth development aids in planning interventions like extractions or orthodontic treatments.
° Age Estimation: The stages are used in forensic dentistry to estimate chronological age.
° Clinical Relevance: Knowledge of Nolla’s Stages enhances communication with colleagues and patients.

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✅ Detailed Breakdown of Nolla’s Stages
Below is a concise explanation of each stage, optimized for clarity and student comprehension:Stage 0: No evidence of tooth formation (absence of crypt).

Stage 1: Presence of a crypt without calcification.
Stage 2: Initial calcification begins, visible as a thin radiopaque line.
Stage 3: One-third of the crown is calcified.
Stage 4: Two-thirds of the crown is calcified.
Stage 5: Crown is nearly complete, with minimal root formation.
Stage 6: Crown is fully formed, and root formation begins.
Stage 7: One-third of the root is formed.
Stage 8: Two-thirds of the root is formed.
Stage 9: Root is nearly complete, with an open apex.
Stage 10: Root is fully formed, with a closed apex.

Each stage can be identified on dental radiographs, such as panoramic or periapical X-rays, making Nolla’s classification practical for clinical settings.

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✅ How to Apply Nolla’s Stages in Dental Practice

1. Radiographic Analysis
Dental students must learn to identify Nolla’s Stages on radiographs. For example, a tooth in Stage 7 indicates early root development, which may influence decisions about orthodontic movement or extraction timing.
2. Orthodontic Planning
Orthodontists use Nolla’s Stages to determine the optimal timing for interventions. For instance, teeth in Stages 6–8 are ideal for certain orthodontic movements due to active root development.
3. Pediatric Dentistry
In pediatric patients, Nolla’s Stages help assess whether tooth development aligns with chronological age, aiding in the diagnosis of developmental anomalies.
4. Forensic Applications
Nolla’s Stages are used in forensic odontology to estimate age in unidentified individuals, especially in legal or disaster victim identification scenarios.

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✅ Tips for Dental Students to Master Nolla’s Stages

° Practice Radiographic Interpretation: Regularly review panoramic radiographs to identify stages accurately.
° Use Visual Aids: Create or use flashcards with images of each stage to reinforce learning.
° Collaborate with Peers: Discuss case studies with classmates to apply Nolla’s Stages in real-world scenarios.
° Leverage Technology: Use dental software or apps that simulate tooth development for interactive learning.
° Stay Updated: Follow recent studies on tooth development to understand variations across populations.

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✅ Discussion: Relevance and Challenges of Nolla’s Stages in 2025
Nolla’s Stages remain a gold standard in dental education due to their simplicity and universal applicability. However, challenges exist:

° Variability Across Populations: Studies suggest that tooth development rates may vary due to genetic, environmental, or nutritional factors, which can complicate stage identification (AlQahtani et al., 2010).
° Technological Advances: Modern imaging techniques, like CBCT (Cone Beam Computed Tomography), offer more detailed views of tooth development, potentially supplementing Nolla’s Stages.
° Interdisciplinary Integration: Dental students must integrate Nolla’s Stages with other classification systems, such as Demirjian’s method, for comprehensive assessments.

Despite these challenges, Nolla’s Stages are still highly relevant in 2025, particularly for their accessibility and reliability in clinical and forensic settings. Dental curricula should emphasize hands-on radiographic training to bridge the gap between theory and practice.

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✍️ Conclusion
Nolla’s Stages offer dental students a robust framework for understanding tooth development, with applications in clinical practice, orthodontics, and forensic dentistry. By mastering these stages, students can enhance their diagnostic skills and contribute to better patient outcomes. In 2025, combining Nolla’s Stages with modern imaging and interdisciplinary approaches ensures their continued relevance. Dental students are encouraged to practice diligently, leverage technology, and stay informed about advancements in dental science to excel in their studies and careers.

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📚 References

✔ Nolla, C. M. (1960). The development of the permanent teeth. Journal of Dentistry for Children, 27(4), 254–266.
✔ Demirjian, A., & Levesque, G. Y. (1980). Sexual differences in dental development and prediction of emergence. Journal of Dental Research, 59(7), 1110–1122. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220345800590070201
✔ Haavikko, K. (1970). The formation and the alveolar and clinical eruption of the permanent teeth: An orthopantomographic study. Proceedings of the Finnish Dental Society, 66(3), 103–170.
✔ Willems, G., Van Olmen, A., Spiessens, B., & Carels, C. (2001). Dental age estimation in Belgian children: Demirjian’s technique revisited. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 46(4), 893–895. https://doi.org/10.1520/JFS15033J

What Are Nolla’s Stages and Why Are They Important in Dentistry?

Nolla’s stages are a widely used method in dentistry to evaluate tooth development through crown and root formation.

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They are essential in pediatric dentistry, orthodontics, and oral surgery, as they allow clinicians to estimate dental age and improve treatment planning accuracy.

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✅ Introduction
Determining dental age is a key procedure in several dental specialties. One of the most applied methods is Nolla’s stages, first proposed in 1960, which classify tooth development into 11 stages, ranging from no calcification to complete apical closure (Nolla, 1960).
This system is clinically valuable for diagnostic, therapeutic, and forensic purposes, as it provides a biological maturity estimate rather than relying solely on chronological age.

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✅ Definition of Nolla’s Stages
Nolla’s classification is a radiographic method describing dental development across 11 consecutive stages, from no calcification (stage 0) to closed root apex (stage 10).

✅ Clinical Importance
Nolla’s stages are used to:

° Estimate dental age in children and adolescents.
° Plan orthodontic treatment, identifying the right timing for interceptive interventions.
° Support pediatric dentistry, especially in patients with delayed or altered tooth development.
° Assist forensic investigations, by estimating age in legal and anthropological contexts.

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✅ Comparison with Other Methods
Compared to systems such as Demirjian or Moorrees, Nolla’s method is simpler and widely accepted. However, some studies suggest it may underestimate age in certain populations (Lee et al., 2022).

💬 Discussion
The relevance of Nolla’s stages remains strong due to their practicality and broad clinical applications. Nonetheless, their accuracy may vary depending on the studied population. For this reason, many authors recommend combining Nolla’s system with other age estimation techniques.
In clinical practice, they are particularly useful in orthodontics and pediatric dentistry, where treatment timing depends heavily on dental maturity.

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✍️ Conclusion
Nolla’s stages represent a reliable diagnostic tool in dentistry, allowing clinicians to assess tooth development and estimate dental age with reasonable accuracy. Their use enhances treatment planning, improves prognostic evaluation, and supports both clinical and forensic decision-making.

📚 References

✔ Lee, J. Y., Kim, Y. K., & Park, J. H. (2022). Accuracy of Nolla’s stages in dental age estimation across populations: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Forensic Odonto-Stomatology, 40(1), 15–22.
✔ Nolla, C. M. (1960). The development of the permanent teeth. Journal of Dentistry for Children, 27(4), 254–266.
✔ Willems, G., Van Olmen, A., Spiessens, B., & Carels, C. (2001). Dental age estimation in Belgian children: Demirjian’s technique revisited. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 46(4), 893–895.
✔ AlQahtani, S. J., Hector, M. P., & Liversidge, H. M. (2010). Brief communication: The London atlas of human tooth development and eruption. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 142(3), 481–490. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21258 br />

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Nolla Stages: Clinical Guide and Comparative Table

Dental age estimation is a key process in pediatric dentistry, orthodontics, and forensic sciences. The Nolla method (1960) established 11 stages of dental maturation, from the absence of calcification to the complete eruption of the tooth in the arch.

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Its clinical value remains relevant due to its simplicity, reliability, and applicability across populations.

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✅ Nolla stages: clinical description

✅ Clinical application in dentistry

➤ Pediatric dentistry
° Evaluates dental maturation to determine the right timing for interceptive treatments.
° Useful in diagnosing delayed or advanced eruption.
➤ Orthodontics
° Guides treatment planning during mixed dentition.
° Helps determine the timing for serial extractions or appliance placement.
➤ Forensic sciences
° Standard tool for estimating chronological age in children and adolescents.

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✅ Comparison with other methods

💬 Discussion
The Nolla method remains one of the most reliable systems in daily clinical practice. Its main strength is the ease of radiographic application, making it a cost-effective and relatively accurate diagnostic tool. However, recent studies indicate variability in accuracy depending on the population being assessed (Cadenas de Llano-Pérula et al., 2020).
Compared to Demirjian, Nolla offers more stages but less validation in multicenter research. In Latin America and the U.S., it continues to be widely used in preventive orthodontics and forensic applications.

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✍️ Conclusion
The Nolla system is a fundamental clinical guide for assessing dental development in children and adolescents. Its usefulness in pediatric dentistry, orthodontics, and forensic sciences keeps it relevant, though combining it with other methods is recommended for higher diagnostic accuracy across populations.

📚 References

✔ Cadenas de Llano-Pérula, M., Alonso-Ezpeleta, O., & Vicente, A. (2020). Dental age estimation using Nolla’s and Demirjian’s methods: A comparative study in a Spanish population. Forensic Science International, 310(110261). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110261
✔ Nolla, C. M. (1960). The development of permanent teeth. Journal of Dentistry for Children, 27(4), 254–266.
✔ Willems, G., Oliveira-Santos, C., Froneman, M., & Thevissen, P. W. (2018). Dental age estimation in children: A widely used method revisited. Forensic Science International, 292, 124–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.09.002

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Maxillary Orthopedics vs. Interceptive Orthodontics: Key Differences, Similarities, and Treatments

1. Introduction
Maxillary orthopedics and interceptive orthodontics are closely related but distinct fields. While both aim to improve oral and facial harmony in growing patients, their approaches, timing, and appliances differ.

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This article provides an updated academic review of their definitions, diagnosis, characteristics, commonly used appliances, discussion, and clinical implications.

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2. Definitions
➤ Maxillary Orthopedics: A specialty focused on correcting discrepancies in the growth and development of the jaws using functional or fixed appliances. It is most effective between ages 6–12, when craniofacial plasticity is greatest (Solución Dental, 2024; TopDoctors, 2024; Clínica Dental Acosta Cubero, 2024).
➤ Interceptive Orthodontics: An early form of orthodontics aimed at intervening during mixed dentition to prevent or guide skeletal and dental development, correct harmful habits, and reduce the need for complex treatments later (González & Casado, 2024; Dental Peset, 2024; Moonz, 2024).

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3. Diagnosis
Both approaches require early evaluation.

➤ Maxillary Orthopedics: Diagnoses focus on skeletal discrepancies such as posterior crossbites, asymmetries, or sagittal imbalances (Solución Dental, 2024; Acosta Cubero, 2024).
➤ Interceptive Orthodontics: Diagnosis includes early malocclusions, dentoalveolar discrepancies, deleterious oral habits (thumb sucking, mouth breathing), or abnormal eruption patterns (González & Casado, 2024; Mallorca Dental, 2024; Moonz, 2024).

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4. Characteristics and Ideal Age

5. Most Common Appliances

➤ Maxillary Orthopedics
° Palatal expansion appliances (Hyrax, Quad Helix, McNamara)
° Face mask and headgear for sagittal discrepancies (retrognathia, prognathism)
° Functional plates to redirect mandibular growth
➤ Interceptive Orthodontics
° Palatal expanders and twin block devices
° Removable plates, Bionator, chin cup, mandibular advancement devices (MADs)
° Functional appliances to stop habits (tongue thrust, thumb sucking, mouth breathing)

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6. Discussion
Both therapies share the same preventive and corrective philosophy but differ in their scope. Maxillary orthopedics directly targets skeletal growth, leveraging craniofacial plasticity. Interceptive orthodontics combines skeletal and dental guidance, addressing early malocclusions and habits.
In clinical practice, they are often sequential or combined: orthopedic treatment first to establish a stable skeletal base, followed by corrective orthodontics to align permanent dentition.
Early diagnosis (ideally around age 6) maximizes effectiveness, reducing the likelihood of surgical interventions such as orthognathic surgery later in life.

7. Conclusion
Maxillary orthopedics and interceptive orthodontics are complementary but distinct strategies. Orthopedics corrects skeletal imbalances, while interceptive orthodontics prevents and modifies both skeletal and dental malocclusions. Both require early diagnosis and proper appliance selection. When combined, they lead to more stable, functional, and esthetic long-term outcomes.

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📚 References

✔ Clínica Solución Dental. (2024, December 22). Differences between maxillary orthopedics and orthodontics. Solución Dental. https://soluciondental.pe/ortopedia-maxilar/diferencias-ortopedia-ortodoncia/

✔ TopDoctors. (2024, August 7). Difference between maxillary orthopedics and orthodontics: A complete guide. TopDoctors. https://www.topdoctors.mx/articulos-medicos/diferencia-entre-ortopedia-maxilar-y-ortodoncia-una-guia-completa/

✔ González y Casado. (2024). Interceptive orthodontics, orthopedics, and functional appliances. https://gonzalezycasado.com/tratamientos/ortodoncia-interceptiva-ortopedia-y-aparatologia-funcional

✔ Dental Peset. (2024). Differences between interceptive and corrective orthodontics. https://dentalpeset.com/ortodoncia-interceptiva/

✔ Moonz Clinics. (2024). What is interceptive orthodontics and why is it important? https://moonz.com/tratamientos/ortodoncia-interceptiva-ortopedia/

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Current Controversies in Serial Extractions: Are They Still Necessary in Mixed Dentition?

Serial extractions are a preventive orthodontic approach typically used during the mixed dentition phase, usually between ages 6 and 12, to manage severe dental crowding.

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While this method has proven effective in many clinical cases, it remains controversial among dental professionals due to concerns about facial esthetics, timing, and the growing availability of less invasive alternatives. This article outlines the key controversies surrounding serial extractions and discusses when — and if — they’re still justified in modern orthodontic care.

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✅ What Are Serial Extractions?
Serial extractions involve the planned, staged removal of certain baby teeth and permanent teeth to guide the proper eruption and alignment of the remaining teeth. This is typically indicated in children with a tooth-size/arch-length discrepancy, where the jaws are too small to accommodate all the permanent teeth.

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✅ Main Controversies

1. Facial Esthetics and Profile Changes
One of the most debated issues is the potential flattening of the facial profile after removing premolars, especially in cases where excessive space closure causes a loss of lip support.
| A study by Boley et al. (2002) showed that serial extractions can lead to noticeable changes in the facial profile, particularly in patients with borderline crowding.

2. Uncertainty About the Best Timing
There is no universally accepted timeline for initiating serial extractions. While some clinicians prefer early intervention around ages 8–9, others suggest waiting until more is known about eruption patterns and skeletal growth to avoid premature or unnecessary extractions.

3. Risk of Arch Collapse or Uncontrolled Space Loss
If not carefully monitored, serial extractions may lead to undesirable tooth movements, collapse of the dental arch, or deep bites — especially if orthodontic appliances are not used to control space closure.

4. Modern Alternatives to Extraction
Advancements in orthodontic techniques, such as palatal expanders, distalizing appliances, and clear aligners, have made it possible to treat moderate to severe crowding without removing teeth. This challenges the traditional view that extraction is the only solution in such cases.

5. Parental Concerns and Ethical Dilemmas
Parents may feel uncomfortable with the idea of extracting seemingly healthy teeth from their children, raising ethical concerns and resistance to treatment unless the goals and benefits are clearly explained.

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💬 Discussion

While serial extractions were once a gold standard in managing crowding, modern orthodontics has shifted toward more conservative, individualized treatment planning. Not every case of crowding requires tooth removal — especially in light of improved diagnostic tools and non-extraction techniques.
It is essential for clinicians to carefully evaluate:
° The degree of crowding.
° The patient’s growth pattern and facial type.
° Long-term esthetic and functional outcomes.

Serial extractions remain useful in select cases, but overuse or poor planning can lead to avoidable complications.

💡 Conclusion

Serial extractions still have a place in interceptive orthodontics, but their use should be judicious and case-specific. Modern orthodontic philosophy emphasizes minimally invasive approaches, patient-centered care, and long-term esthetic and functional balance.
Ultimately, the controversy lies not in whether serial extractions work — but in when, how, and for whom they are truly necessary.

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📚 References

✔ Boley, J. C., Markin, S., & Sachdeva, R. (2002). Long-term stability of Class I premolar extraction treatment. The Angle Orthodontist, 72(5), 432–437. https://doi.org/10.1043/0003-3219(2002)072<0432:lsocip>2.0.CO;2

✔ Proffit, W. R., Fields, H. W., & Sarver, D. M. (2018). Contemporary Orthodontics (6th ed.). Elsevier.

✔ Rinchuse, D. J., & Rinchuse, D. J. (2014). Evidence-based decision making in orthodontics. Journal of the American Dental Association, 145(3), 239–243. https://doi.org/10.14219/jada.2013.28

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Indications and Contraindications of Serial Extractions in Pediatric Dentistry: Updated Clinical Guide

Serial extractions are a preventive orthodontic procedure used to manage severe crowding by sequentially removing selected primary and permanent teeth. Correct case selection is essential to ensure long-term success and avoid complications.

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✅ Clinical Importance of Serial Extractions
Serial extractions help manage space deficiencies during mixed dentition, guiding permanent teeth into more favorable positions. When indicated appropriately, they can:

° Reduce the need for complex orthodontic treatments in adolescence.
° Minimize treatment duration and need for permanent extractions later.
° Maintain balanced facial growth and dental function.

As Proffit et al. (2019) highlight, interceptive orthodontics, including serial extractions, plays a crucial role in guiding proper occlusal development in growing patients.

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✅ Indications for Serial Extractions
Serial extractions are recommended when the following conditions are met:

1. Severe Crowding (>4–5 mm per quadrant)
The primary indication is significant space deficiency that prevents proper eruption of permanent teeth.

2. Negative Tooth–Arch Size Discrepancy
When the total mesiodistal width of permanent teeth exceeds the basal arch length, serial extractions help achieve alignment.

3. Altered or Asynchronous Eruption Patterns
When the eruption sequence is delayed or misaligned, especially in anterior segments, creating space can improve outcomes.

4. Skeletal Class I Pattern
Serial extractions are most effective in patients with normal skeletal growth and no vertical or sagittal disharmonies.

5. Ideal Age: 8–11 Years (Early Mixed Dentition)
The ideal timing is when the first permanent molars and incisors are present, and canines and premolars are developing.

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✅ Contraindications for Serial Extractions
This procedure is not recommended in the following situations:

1. Skeletal Malocclusions (Class II or III)
Patients with significant jaw discrepancies, open bites, deep bites, or crossbites may require orthopedic intervention instead.

2. Presence of Harmful Oral Habits
Thumb sucking, tongue thrust, or mouth breathing must be addressed first, as they can compromise treatment outcomes.

3. Hypodontia or Congenitally Missing Teeth
Teeth should not be extracted if others are absent, as this may worsen spacing or occlusal issues.

4. Mild Crowding or Adequate Arch Space
Unnecessary extractions may cause undesirable gaps or misalignment in otherwise manageable dentitions.

5. Eruption Anomalies or Tooth Impactions
Ectopic eruptions or impacted teeth may require surgical exposure or space creation through other orthodontic means.

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✅ Updated Clinical Recommendations

° Comprehensive diagnostic workup is essential: panoramic and cephalometric X-rays, dental cast analysis, and space evaluation.
° Collaborate with an orthodontist early in treatment planning.
° Educate parents and caregivers about the rationale, timeline, and phases of serial extraction.
° Ensure long-term follow-up to monitor permanent tooth eruption and intervene if deviations occur.

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💬 Discussion
When applied correctly, serial extractions can greatly reduce future treatment complexity. However, inappropriate indication—such as in skeletal malocclusion cases—may lead to unwanted effects, such as arch collapse or residual spacing. The procedure does not replace orthodontic treatment but is rather a preventive adjunct to simplify it (Jarjoura et al., 2020).
Current research supports the effectiveness of serial extractions in well-selected Class I cases. Multidisciplinary coordination and long-term monitoring are key to avoiding complications and ensuring occlusal harmony.

💡 Conclusion
Serial extractions remain a valuable strategy in pediatric orthodontics, but only when properly indicated. Understanding both indications and contraindications allows clinicians to plan treatment safely and predictably. When combined with accurate diagnosis and follow-up, this preventive approach can optimize dental development and reduce the need for future interventions.

📚 References

✔ Jarjoura, K., Goonewardene, M., & Fleming, P. S. (2020). Serial extraction in orthodontics: A systematic review of effectiveness and efficiency. Orthodontics & Craniofacial Research, 23(2), 122–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/ocr.12338

✔ Proffit, W. R., Fields, H. W., Larson, B., & Sarver, D. M. (2019). Contemporary Orthodontics (6th ed.). Elsevier.

✔ Singh, G., & Clark, W. (2018). Interceptive orthodontics: Key concepts and clinical applications. Dental Clinics of North America, 62(3), 457–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cden.2018.03.002

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