Mostrando entradas con la etiqueta Oral Medicine. Mostrar todas las entradas
Mostrando entradas con la etiqueta Oral Medicine. Mostrar todas las entradas

sábado, 30 de agosto de 2025

Viral Diseases of the Oral Mucosa in Pediatric Dentistry: Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment - Comparative Table 📊

Oral medicine

Viral diseases affecting the oral mucosa are frequent in pediatric dentistry and often present diagnostic and therapeutic challenges. The most common conditions include primary herpetic gingivostomatitis (HSV-1), hand-foot-mouth disease (HFMD, caused by Coxsackie and enteroviruses), and herpangina. Other relevant viral infections include varicella-zoster virus (VZV), Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), and cytomegalovirus (CMV).

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This article reviews the main viral oral diseases in children, including their signs, symptoms, diagnostic approaches, clinical features, pharmacological management, and therapeutic options, ending with a discussion and clinical conclusion.

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1. Major Viral Oral Diseases in Children

1.1 Primary Herpetic Gingivostomatitis (HSV-1)

➤ Signs and symptoms: Painful vesicles and ulcers on gingiva, lips, and oral mucosa; fever, malaise, cervical lymphadenopathy, and refusal to eat or drink, increasing the risk of dehydration.
➤ Diagnosis: Mainly clinical. In uncertain cases, PCR, viral culture, or Tzanck smear may be used.
➤ Treatment: Oral acyclovir (40–80 mg/kg/day in 3–4 doses for 7–14 days) is the drug of choice. Valacyclovir or famciclovir are options for recurrences. Topical antivirals are less effective.
➤ Clinical features: Highly contagious; recurrences are common and may benefit from daily prophylaxis in selected cases.

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1.2 Hand-Foot-Mouth Disease (HFMD)

➤ Signs and symptoms: Painful ulcers (2–4 mm) on tongue, gingiva, and palate; accompanied by papules and vesicles on hands and feet; fever and malaise are common.
➤ Diagnosis: Clinical. In atypical presentations, throat or stool samples may confirm viral etiology.
➤ Treatment: No specific antiviral therapy exists. Management includes analgesics (acetaminophen, ibuprofen), hydration, and topical anesthetics for oral pain. Aspirin should be avoided in children.
➤ Clinical features: Self-limiting, resolving within 7–10 days. High transmissibility in children under 5 years of age.

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1.3 Herpangina

➤ Signs and symptoms: High fever, sore throat, and headache, followed by small vesicles on the soft palate, tonsillar pillars, and uvula that evolve into ulcers ≤5 mm.
➤ Diagnosis: Clinical; differentiation from HSV is based on posterior vs. anterior lesion distribution.
➤ Treatment: Supportive; pain relief and hydration. Symptoms usually resolve within 5–7 days.

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2. Other Viral Infections of the Oral Cavity
Other less frequent but clinically relevant infections include varicella-zoster (chickenpox and herpes zoster), infectious mononucleosis (EBV), CMV infections, and oral papillomavirus lesions. These conditions may present with vesicles, erythematous patches, or papillary growths such as squamous papilloma and focal epithelial hyperplasia.

3. Diagnostic Considerations
A careful evaluation of lesion distribution, systemic symptoms, and medical history is crucial. In complex or atypical cases, laboratory tests such as PCR, serology, or biopsy may be required to confirm viral etiology.

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4. Management and Pharmacological Interventions

° Herpangina & HFMD: Supportive care with analgesics and hydration.
° HSV-1: Oral acyclovir remains the gold standard; valacyclovir and famciclovir are effective alternatives in adolescents and recurrent cases.
° Other viral infections: Generally self-limited; antiviral therapy is rarely required, except in immunocompromised patients or severe cases.

Comparative Table: Viral Oral Diseases in Children

Feature Primary Herpetic Gingivostomatitis (HSV-1) Hand-Foot-Mouth Disease (HFMD) Herpangina
Etiology Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) Coxsackie A16, Enterovirus 71 Coxsackie A, B
Age group 6 months – 5 years <5 years <10 years
Oral lesion location Anterior mucosa, gingiva, lips Tongue, gingiva, hard palate Soft palate, tonsillar pillars, uvula
Lesion type Vesicles → painful ulcers Vesicles and small ulcers Small gray vesicles → ulcers
Systemic symptoms High fever, malaise, lymphadenopathy Low-grade fever, malaise High fever, sore throat, headache
Transmission Saliva, direct contact Fecal-oral, droplets Fecal-oral, droplets
Duration 10–14 days 7–10 days 5–7 days
Treatment Oral acyclovir, hydration, pain control Symptomatic: analgesics, hydration Symptomatic: analgesics, hydration
Complications Dehydration, recurrence, secondary infection Dehydration, nail changes (rare) Dehydration, rare complications

5. Discussion
Viral oral infections in children are highly prevalent and must be correctly identified to ensure proper management. Although most are self-limiting, they can significantly affect nutrition, hydration, and quality of life. Pediatric dentists must differentiate among herpetic gingivostomatitis, HFMD, and herpangina to prevent misdiagnosis and overtreatment.
Recent literature emphasizes decision-making algorithms for pediatric oral lesions, highlighting the need for continuous education in pediatric dentistry.

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6. Conclusion
The most common viral diseases of the oral mucosa in children—HSV-1, HFMD, and herpangina—present distinct features that allow clinical differentiation. While HSV requires specific antiviral therapy, HFMD and herpangina rely on symptomatic management. Accurate diagnosis prevents complications such as dehydration and secondary infections. Pediatric dentists must remain updated on viral oral manifestations to provide evidence-based care.

📚 References

✔ American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP). (2010). Nongenital herpes simplex virus. American Family Physician, 82(9), 1075-1082. Retrieved from https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2010/1101/p1075.html
✔ Guillouet, C., et al. (2022). Oral lesions of viral, bacterial, and fungal diseases in children: Diagnostic decision tools. Frontiers in Pediatrics. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9358008/
✔ Mayo Clinic. (2025, July 26). Hand-foot-and-mouth disease: Diagnosis & treatment. Retrieved from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hand-foot-and-mouth-disease/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353041
✔ Santosh, A. B. R., & Muddana, K. (2020). Viral infections of the oral cavity: Clinical presentation, pathogenic mechanism, investigations, and management. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 9(1), 36–42. https://journals.lww.com/jfmpc/fulltext/2020/09010/viral_infections_of_oral_cavity.8.aspx


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viernes, 29 de agosto de 2025

Adverse Effects of Local Anesthesia in Pediatric Dentistry: Types, Symptoms, and Management

Dental Anesthesia

Local anesthetics are indispensable for ensuring pain-free dental procedures and reducing anxiety in children.

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However, due to factors such as age, body weight, and immature metabolism, pediatric patients are at higher risk of adverse reactions (Malamed, 2022). Understanding the potential complications and their management is critical to ensuring safe dental practice.

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Types of Local Anesthetics in Pediatric Dentistry

➤ Lidocaine 2% with epinephrine: considered the “gold standard,” safe with low toxicity risk.
➤ Mepivacaine 2% and 3%: useful for patients sensitive to vasoconstrictors, though the 3% plain solution has a higher risk of systemic toxicity.
➤ Articaine 4% with epinephrine: highly effective with superior bone diffusion, but associated with an increased risk of paresthesia.
➤ Prilocaine 3%: lower vasodilatory effect, but may induce methemoglobinemia in high doses.
➤ Bupivacaine 0.5%: long-acting, recommended for extensive procedures, but carries a higher risk of cardiotoxicity.

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Local Adverse Effects

➤ Injection site pain: localized inflammation or hematoma.
➤ Trismus: muscle trauma or irritation from improper technique.
➤ Paresthesia: most commonly linked to articaine and prilocaine, involving the lingual or inferior alveolar nerve.
➤ Tissue necrosis: associated with high vasoconstrictor concentration.

Systemic Adverse Effects
Often linked to overdose, rapid absorption, or idiosyncratic reactions:

➤ Central Nervous System (CNS): dizziness, drowsiness, blurred vision, tremors, seizures.
➤ Cardiovascular system: bradycardia, hypotension, arrhythmias, cardiovascular collapse.
➤ Allergic reactions: rare, but may include urticaria, bronchospasm, or anaphylaxis.
➤ Methemoglobinemia: related to high doses of prilocaine, leading to cyanosis and respiratory distress.

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Clinical Signs and Symptoms

➤ Pale skin, dizziness, blurred vision after injection.
➤ Drowsiness or unusual behavior in children.
➤ Seizures in severe overdose cases.
➤ Tachycardia or bradycardia depending on drug and dosage.
➤ Cyanosis and breathing difficulties in methemoglobinemia.

Management and Treatment

1. Prevention:
° Calculate maximum safe dose in mg/kg (e.g., lidocaine 4.4 mg/kg; mepivacaine 4.4 mg/kg; articaine 7 mg/kg).
° Avoid high concentrations in underweight patients.
° Aspirate before injection to prevent intravascular administration.
2. Treatment:
° Stop anesthetic administration immediately.
° Place patient in a supine position with a clear airway.
° Provide supplemental oxygen.
° Manage seizures with benzodiazepines (midazolam or diazepam).
° Severe allergic reactions: intramuscular epinephrine, corticosteroids, and antihistamines.
° Methemoglobinemia: intravenous methylene blue (1%).
° Continuous monitoring and hospital transfer if necessary.

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💬 Discussion
Balancing analgesic efficacy with safety is crucial when using local anesthetics in pediatric dentistry. Solutions at 2% concentration generally present lower toxicity risk compared to higher concentrations, making them preferable in younger patients. While severe complications are rare, their potential impact highlights the importance of proper pharmacological knowledge, accurate dosage calculation, and readiness to handle emergencies.

✍️ Conclusion
Local anesthesia is safe in pediatric dentistry when applied correctly and within recommended dosages. Early recognition of adverse effects and proper clinical management are key to minimizing risks. Continuous education in dental pharmacology and the availability of emergency protocols in the dental office are essential for optimal patient care.

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📚 References

✔ Malamed, S. F. (2022). Handbook of Local Anesthesia (7th ed.). Elsevier.
✔ Haas, D. A. (2022). Adverse effects of local anesthetics in dentistry. Journal of the Canadian Dental Association, 88, m8.
✔ Pogrel, M. A. (2019). Permanent nerve damage from inferior alveolar nerve blocks—An update to include articaine. Journal of the California Dental Association, 47(3), 127–133.
✔ Becker, D. E., & Reed, K. L. (2012). Local anesthetics: Review of pharmacological considerations. Anesthesia Progress, 59(2), 90–102. https://doi.org/10.2344/0003-3006-59.2.90
✔ Meechan, J. G. (2018). Local anaesthesia for children. British Dental Journal, 225(4), 299–304. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2018.633

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miércoles, 20 de agosto de 2025

Cold Sore, Canker Sore, and Oral Thrush: Key Differences You Should Know

Cold Sore-Canker Sore-Oral Thrush

Cold sores, canker sores, and oral thrush are among the most frequent oral lesions, often mistaken for one another.

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Introduction
Oral lesions are common in dentistry and general practice. Cold sores (herpes labialis), canker sores (recurrent aphthous stomatitis), and oral thrush (candidiasis) are frequent conditions, but they differ in etiology: viral, inflammatory, and fungal, respectively. Correct identification is essential for adequate management, prevention, and recurrence control.

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1. Cold Sore (Herpes Labialis)

➤ Etiology
Caused by herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1).
➤ Signs and Symptoms
° Prodromal stage: tingling, itching, or burning on the lip.
° Lesion: grouped vesicles on the vermilion border that ulcerate and form crusts.
➤ Diagnosis
Mainly clinical; PCR or serology can be used in atypical cases.
➤ Treatment
° Adults: oral or topical antivirals (acyclovir, valacyclovir).
° Children: symptomatic management; antivirals in severe cases.

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2. Canker Sore (Recurrent Aphthous Stomatitis)

➤ Etiology
Multifactorial: genetic predisposition, nutritional deficiencies (iron, folic acid, vitamin B12), trauma, or stress.
➤ Signs and Symptoms
° Round, painful ulcers with a white-yellow base and red halo.
° Pain can impair eating and speaking.
➤ Diagnosis
Clinical, based on ulcer morphology and absence of vesicular stage.
➤ Treatment
° Adults and children: antiseptic rinses (chlorhexidine), topical anesthetics (lidocaine), and topical corticosteroids for severe episodes.

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3. Oral Thrush (Oral Candidiasis)

➤ Etiology
Fungal infection caused by Candida albicans. Risk factors: immunosuppression, antibiotic use, inhaled corticosteroids, dentures.
➤ Signs and Symptoms
° Forms:
  • Pseudomembranous: removable white plaques with red underlying mucosa.
  • Atrophic: painful red mucosa.
  • Hyperplastic: non-removable white lesions.
° Burning sensation, dysphagia, taste disturbances.
➤ Diagnosis
Mainly clinical; confirmed with exfoliative cytology or fungal culture.
➤ Treatment
° Adults: topical antifungals (nystatin, miconazole) or systemic antifungals (fluconazole) in resistant cases.
° Children: oral suspension of nystatin.

📊 Comparative Table: Cold Sore, Canker Sore, and Oral Thrush

💬 Discussion
Although similar in appearance, these conditions can be clearly distinguished through careful clinical evaluation. Cold sores show a vesicular stage and recurrence, canker sores are isolated painful ulcers without vesicles, and oral thrush presents as persistent plaques or erythematous mucosa. Treatment differs according to etiology, highlighting the need for precise diagnosis and tailored therapy in both children and adults.

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✍️ Conclusion
Recognizing the differences between cold sores, canker sores, and oral thrush ensures appropriate treatment and reduces recurrence or complications. Patient education, preventive measures, and early evaluation remain key in managing these frequent oral conditions.

📚 References

✔ Arduino, P. G., & Porter, S. R. (2008). Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 infection: overview on relevant clinico-pathological features. Journal of Oral Pathology & Medicine, 37(2), 107-121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0714.2007.00586.x
✔ Belenguer-Guallar, I., Jiménez-Soriano, Y., & Claramunt-Lozano, A. (2014). Treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. A literature review. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Dentistry, 6(2), e168–e174. https://doi.org/10.4317/jced.51402
✔ Scully, C., & Porter, S. (2008). Oral candidosis: current concepts in pathogenesis and therapy. Dental Update, 35(9), 606-612. https://doi.org/10.12968/denu.2008.35.9.606

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domingo, 3 de agosto de 2025

Dental Abscess, Fistula, Cellulitis, and Ludwig's Angina: Differences, Symptoms & Treatment

Dental Infection

Odontogenic infections such as dental abscess, fistula, cellulitis, and Ludwig's angina are frequent but vary in severity and required intervention.

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Understanding their differences is essential for timely treatment and complication prevention.

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1. Definitions and Pathophysiology

➤ Dental Abscess: A localized accumulation of pus caused by pulp necrosis or advanced caries spreading to the periapical tissues.
➤ Fistula (Sinus Tract): A chronic drainage pathway from a periapical infection to the oral mucosa or skin, typically painless after drainage.
➤ Cellulitis: A diffuse bacterial infection of soft tissues with no localized pus accumulation, commonly involving facial or cervical regions.
➤ Ludwig’s Angina: A life-threatening, rapidly progressing cellulitis affecting the submandibular, sublingual, and submental spaces, mostly originating from infected mandibular molars.

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2. Clinical Signs and Symptoms

3. Causes and Risk Factors

➤ Abscesses and Fistulas: Poor oral hygiene, untreated caries, failed endodontic therapy, or trauma.
➤ Cellulitis: Often follows abscess progression without proper drainage.
➤ Ludwig’s Angina: Usually triggered by untreated second or third molar infections, especially in immunocompromised patients.

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4. Pharmacologic Treatment

➤ Abscess: First-line antibiotics include amoxicillin-clavulanate or clindamycin (for penicillin-allergic patients), plus NSAIDs for pain.
➤ Fistula: Antibiotics are not curative alone. Treating the primary cause (e.g., root canal or extraction) is essential.
➤ Cellulitis: Requires broad-spectrum systemic antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin-sulbactam or clindamycin + metronidazole) and close monitoring.
➤ Ludwig’s Angina: Urgent IV antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin-sulbactam, piperacillin-tazobactam, or clindamycin + metronidazole) and coverage for MRSA if needed (e.g., vancomycin).

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5. Surgical Management

➤ Abscess: Requires incision and drainage (I&D), followed by root canal treatment or extraction.
➤ Fistula: Resolve through definitive dental treatment. Surgical excision may be required if the tract persists after resolution.
➤ Cellulitis: May require I&D if abscess formation develops. Initial antibiotic therapy should be monitored for response.
➤ Ludwig’s Angina: Surgical drainage is mandatory, often under general anesthesia. Airway protection (via fiberoptic intubation or tracheostomy) is crucial.

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6. Discussion

In the U.S., dental abscesses represent the most common odontogenic infection seen in emergency rooms. While fistulas and cellulitis are often managed on an outpatient basis, Ludwig’s angina remains a true medical emergency. Studies confirm that delays in treatment and misdiagnosis are strongly associated with airway obstruction, ICU admissions, and mortality. Early recognition of systemic signs, particularly in vulnerable populations, is vital.

7. Conclusions

➤ Dental abscesses should be identified early and drained appropriately.
➤ Fistulas represent chronic infections and require definitive endodontic or surgical therapy.
➤ Cellulitis demands aggressive antibiotic treatment and possible surgical evaluation.
➤ Ludwig’s Angina requires a multidisciplinary approach, emphasizing airway security, IV antibiotics, and immediate surgical drainage.

Timely diagnosis, tailored antimicrobial therapy, and prompt referral to specialized care are key to reducing the risk of complications in odontogenic infections.

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References

✔ Brook, I. (2017). Odontogenic infections. New England Journal of Medicine, 376(13), 1231–1239. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1615281

✔ Topazian, R. G., Goldberg, M. H., & Hupp, J. R. (2002). Oral and Maxillofacial Infections (4th ed.). Saunders.

✔ Flynn, T. R. (2000). Ludwig's angina. Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Clinics of North America, 12(4), 725–738.

✔ StatPearls Publishing. (2024). Ludwig Angina. In StatPearls. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482354

✔ Sheehan, A., & Carr, E. (2021). Odontogenic sinus tracts: Diagnosis and management. Medscape. https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1077808-overview

✔ Navarro, V. C., et al. (2022). Cervicofacial odontogenic infections: prevalence and therapeutic approach. Latin American Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 2(4), 156–160.

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jueves, 31 de julio de 2025

Odontogenic Infections in Children: Updated Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention Guidelines (2025)

Dental Infection

Odontogenic infections are among the most frequent pediatric dental emergencies and may lead to serious systemic complications if not managed properly.

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Introduction
Pediatric odontogenic infections originate in the dental or periodontal tissues and commonly arise from untreated caries, dental trauma, or eruptive complications. According to the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD, 2023) and the World Health Organization (WHO, 2023), these infections require prompt intervention to avoid serious outcomes, including cellulitis, airway obstruction, and sepsis. Early diagnosis and rational antibiotic use are critical in reducing risks and improving patient outcomes.

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Etiology and Risk Factors
The most frequent causes include:

° Advanced dental caries: The main entry route for bacteria into the pulp and periapical tissues.
° Dental trauma: Which exposes the pulp to bacterial contamination.
° Complicated tooth eruption: Such as pericoronitis in erupting molars.
° Poor oral hygiene and high-sugar diets: Major modifiable risk factors for infection.

Clinical Signs and Symptoms
Typical features include:

° Persistent toothache
° Facial swelling
° Intraoral or extraoral abscess
° Fever, trismus, and general discomfort
° Regional lymphadenopathy

Diagnosis involves a comprehensive clinical examination supported by radiographs (periapical or panoramic) and, when necessary, blood tests (Fuks & Peretz, 2022).

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Current Management Guidelines

1. Early Diagnosis
Timely diagnosis is crucial. Delayed treatment increases the risk of systemic spread and hospitalization. Pediatricians and general dentists should be trained to recognize signs of odontogenic infections and refer appropriately.

2. Clinical Treatment
° Abscess drainage: Via incision or puncture depending on site and severity.
° Pulp therapy or extraction: Based on the degree of structural damage.
° Antibiotics: Indicated only for systemic involvement (fever, facial cellulitis, trismus). Amoxicillin-clavulanate is first-line, while clindamycin is used for penicillin-allergic patients (AAPD, 2023).

3. Pain and Inflammation Control
Use of over-the-counter analgesics like acetaminophen or ibuprofen under professional guidance is effective for symptom relief.

Prevention and Long-Term Strategies
Effective prevention includes:

° Early dental visits: By age 1 or upon eruption of the first tooth.
° Oral hygiene education: For caregivers and children.
° Fluoride applications and sealants: For high-risk teeth.
° Routine check-ups every 6 months: To detect early-stage caries.

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💬 Discussion

Odontogenic infections in children are highly preventable yet remain a public health concern in underserved communities. Misuse of antibiotics and delayed care often worsen outcomes. Studies show that infections of dental origin are a leading cause of pediatric facial cellulitis and hospital admissions for deep-space infections (Thikkurissy et al., 2020).
There is also a pressing need to address antimicrobial resistance. Inappropriate prescriptions for viral or non-infectious conditions continue to contribute to global resistance patterns (WHO, 2023). Proper clinical judgment and caregiver education are vital components of comprehensive care.

Conclusion

Managing pediatric odontogenic infections effectively involves prompt diagnosis, evidence-based treatment, and sustained preventive efforts. Dental professionals, physicians, and families must work collaboratively to ensure oral health is prioritized from early childhood. Rational antibiotic use, regular dental assessments, and public health education are key pillars for minimizing complications.

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📚 References

✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2023). Guideline on oral health care for the pediatric patient. The Reference Manual of Pediatric Dentistry. Chicago, Ill.: AAPD.

✔ Fuks, A. B., & Peretz, B. (2022). Pediatric Endodontics: Current Concepts in Pulp Therapy for Primary and Young Permanent Teeth (2nd ed.). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80157-0

✔ Thikkurissy, S., Miller, C., Casamassimo, P. S., & Berg, J. (2020). Management of dental infections in children: A review. Journal of the American Dental Association, 151(3), 180–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adaj.2019.12.004

✔ World Health Organization. (2023). Antimicrobial resistance: global report on surveillance 2023. Geneva: WHO. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240071928

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miércoles, 30 de julio de 2025

Can a Dental Infection Affect a Child's Heart? Risks Every Parent Should Know

Dental Infection

Oral health plays a crucial role in overall well-being. In pediatric dentistry, there's growing concern about the systemic effects of dental infections, particularly in children with underlying heart conditions.

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Bacteria from an infected tooth can enter the bloodstream and travel to the heart, potentially triggering infective endocarditis, a life-threatening infection of the heart lining or valves. Although more common in adults, this condition can also occur in children, especially those with congenital heart defects.

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Etiology
Most dental infections in children originate from untreated tooth decay, pulpitis, or periodontal disease, caused by bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans, Fusobacterium nucleatum, and Porphyromonas gingivalis. During infection or invasive dental procedures (e.g., extractions), these bacteria can enter the bloodstream—a process known as bacteremia.
Children with certain congenital heart conditions are more vulnerable to bacterial colonization of the heart, which can result in infective endocarditis.

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Diagnosis
Detecting a dental infection with potential cardiac implications involves both dental and medical assessments:

° Clinical signs: Toothache, swelling, pus discharge, fever, halitosis.
° Radiographic findings: Periapical radiolucency, abscesses, or advanced dental decay.
° Medical evaluation: In high-risk children, blood cultures and echocardiograms may be necessary if systemic symptoms are present.

Pediatric patients with known cardiac conditions must be identified early to manage their dental care proactively.

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Prevention
Prevention is essential to protect children from oral infections and their systemic consequences:

° Daily oral hygiene: Brushing with fluoride toothpaste, flossing, and limiting sugary foods.
° Regular dental visits: Every 6 months for checkups and cleanings.
° Antibiotic prophylaxis: Recommended by the American Heart Association (AHA, 2021) before certain dental procedures in children at high risk of infective endocarditis.
° Parental awareness: Caregivers must understand that oral health is connected to heart health.

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Treatment
Management of dental infections in children, especially those at cardiac risk, requires a timely and coordinated approach:

1. Eliminate the source of infection: Through drainage, pulp therapy, or tooth extraction if necessary.
2. Antibiotic therapy: Typically amoxicillin; clindamycin is used in penicillin-allergic patients.
3. Medical follow-up: Collaboration with a pediatric cardiologist is crucial in high-risk cases.

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💬 Discussion

Although infective endocarditis in children is rare, it can have devastating outcomes. The risk increases when poor oral hygiene and untreated dental infections coincide with congenital heart disease. This emphasizes the importance of an interdisciplinary approach—pediatric dentists and cardiologists should work together to create safe, effective care plans for at-risk children.
Moreover, public health strategies must include pediatric oral health as a priority, especially in underserved populations where dental care access may be limited.

💡 Conclusions

° Dental infections in children can cause bacteremia, increasing the risk of infective endocarditis in those with cardiac conditions.
° Prevention through good oral hygiene, regular dental care, and targeted antibiotic use is the best defense.
° A team-based approach involving dental and medical professionals is vital for safeguarding the overall health of children with heart disease.

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📚 References

✔ Wilson, W., Taubert, K. A., Gewitz, M., Lockhart, P. B., Baddour, L. M., Levison, M., ... & Baltimore, R. S. (2021). Prevention of infective endocarditis: guidelines from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 143(1), e963–e978. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000969

✔ Lockhart, P. B., Brennan, M. T., Sasser, H. C., Fox, P. C., Paster, B. J., & Bahrani-Mougeot, F. K. (2008). Bacteremia associated with toothbrushing and dental extraction. Circulation, 117(24), 3118-3125. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.758524

✔ Pallasch, T. J., & Slots, J. (1996). Dentistry and endocarditis: the end of the antibiotic era. Compendium of Continuing Education in Dentistry, 17(8), 740–752. PMID: 8931236

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martes, 29 de julio de 2025

Updated Guide to Labial and Lingual Frenulum Management in Pediatric Dentistry

Labial and Lingual Frenulum

The labial and lingual frenula are normal anatomical structures, but when their attachment is abnormal or restrictive, they can interfere with oral function, facial development, and esthetics.

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Early diagnosis in children is crucial to prevent issues related to speech, feeding, breathing, and oral hygiene. This guide provides an evidence-based overview of how to identify and manage frenulum-related conditions in pediatric patients.

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Diagnosis of Frenulum Abnormalities

1. Abnormal Maxillary Labial Frenulum
➤ Clinical Diagnosis:
° Low attachment (near the interdental papilla)
° Midline diastema
° Blanching of the papilla when the frenulum is pulled

➤ Evaluation Tools:
° Visual and tactile inspection
° Kotlow Classification for insertion level
° Periapical radiographs to assess spacing

➤ Classification (Miralles et al., 2009):
° Mucosal, gingival, papillary, penetrating

2. Lingual Frenulum (Ankyloglossia or "Tongue-Tie")
➤ Clinical Diagnosis:
° Limited tongue mobility
° Difficulties in breastfeeding, speech, or swallowing
° Heart-shaped appearance of the tongue tip

➤ Assessment Tools:
° Hazelbaker Assessment Tool (function and anatomy)
° Observation during oral functions (e.g., protrusion, suction)
° Referral to multidisciplinary specialists when needed

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Common Signs and Symptoms

Consequences of Untreated Frenulum Issues

° Persistent midline diastema
° Periodontal recession due to tissue pulling
° Speech disorders (e.g., lisps, articulation delay)
° Breastfeeding difficulties in infants
° Orofacial myofunctional disorders
° Orthodontic complications later in life

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Treatment Options for Frenulum Disorders

1. Labial Frenulum
➤ Management:
° Monitoring (especially in children under age 6 with physiological spacing)
° Surgical Frenectomy indicated when:
  • Diastema persists after eruption of permanent incisors 
  •  Orthodontic treatment is planned 
  •  Gingival recession or tension is observed
➤ Surgical Techniques:
° Traditional scalpel technique
° Electrosurgery
° Diode laser (minimizes bleeding, faster healing)

2. Lingual Frenulum (Tongue-Tie)
➤ Management:
° Frenotomy: simple incision, typically for infants
° Frenectomy: complete removal, suitable for older children or severe cases
° Pre- and post-surgical myofunctional therapy
° Multidisciplinary approach: pediatric dentist, lactation consultant, speech-language pathologist

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Clinical Recommendations

° Assess frenula during the infant’s first dental or pediatric visit
° Treat ankyloglossia early if it impacts feeding or oral function
° Avoid surgery for purely esthetic reasons in primary dentition
° Use laser technology for anxious children or those needing fast recovery
° Always include functional assessment before deciding on surgery

💬 Discussion

Frenulum-related conditions are common in children but often overlooked. Evidence suggests that function-based assessment should take precedence over anatomical appearance when making treatment decisions. Early intervention in cases like tongue-tie can greatly improve oral and facial development. Diode lasers have significantly improved surgical outcomes in children, making the procedures less invasive and more tolerable. Still, collaboration between specialties remains the gold standard for long-term success.

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💡 Conclusion

° Early identification of abnormal frenula prevents future complications.
° Treatment decisions must prioritize function over appearance.
° Conservative surgical techniques are preferred in pediatric cases.
° A team-based approach enhances treatment outcomes, especially in tongue-tie.
° Parental education and regular follow-up are essential to successful management.

📚 References

✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD). (2023). Guideline on Management of the Frenulum in Pediatric Patients. https://www.aapd.org/research/oral-health-policies--recommendations/

✔ Baxter, R., & Dupont, J. (2020). Tongue-Tied: How a Tiny String Under the Tongue Impacts Nursing, Speech, Feeding, and More. Alabama Tongue-Tie Center.

✔ Hazelbaker, A. (2010). Assessment Tool for Lingual Frenulum Function (ATLFF). Columbus, OH.

✔ Kotlow, L. A. (2004). Oral diagnosis of abnormal frenum attachments in neonates and infants: evaluation and treatment of the maxillary and lingual frenum using the Erbium:YAG laser. Journal of the Laser and Health Academy, 2(3), 1–7.

✔ Miralles, R., et al. (2009). Clinical classification of upper labial frenulum insertions in children. Revista Chilena de Odontopediatría, 3(1), 23–27.

✔ Nakhash, A., et al. (2021). Surgical interventions for ankyloglossia in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 145, 110714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2021.110714

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