Zinc Oxide Eugenol vs Calcium Hydroxide–Iodoform in Pulpectomy

Pulpectomy in primary teeth requires obturation materials that ensure antimicrobial efficacy, biocompatibility, and physiological resorption. The comparison between zinc oxide eugenol (ZOE) and calcium hydroxide–iodoform pastes remains clinically relevant.

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This review analyzes clinical performance, resorption behavior, success rates, and limitations, based on current evidence.
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✅ Introduction
Pulpectomy is a key procedure in pediatric dentistry aimed at preserving infected primary teeth. The ideal obturation material should exhibit resorbability synchronized with root resorption, antimicrobial properties, and minimal toxicity to periapical tissues. Historically, ZOE has been widely used, whereas calcium hydroxide–iodoform pastes have gained popularity due to improved biological properties.

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✅ Material Characteristics

Zinc Oxide Eugenol (ZOE)
▪️ Composition: Zinc oxide powder and eugenol liquid
▪️ Properties: Antimicrobial, radiopaque, good sealing ability
▪️ Limitations: Slow resorption, potential irritation to periapical tissues

Calcium Hydroxide–Iodoform Pastes (e.g., Vitapex, Metapex)
▪️ Composition: Calcium hydroxide, iodoform, silicone oil vehicle
▪️ Properties: Strong antimicrobial activity, high biocompatibility, resorbable
▪️ Clinical advantage: Resorption closely follows physiological root resorption

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✅ Clinical Performance

Success Rates
▪️ Both materials demonstrate high clinical success rates (>80%)
▪️ Recent studies suggest slightly higher radiographic success with calcium hydroxide–iodoform pastes

Evidence:
▪️ Coll et al. (2020) reported comparable success rates, with better resorption patterns in calcium hydroxide–iodoform materials.
▪️ Ramar & Mungara (2010) found higher success in Vitapex compared to ZOE in primary teeth pulpectomies.

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✅ Resorption Behavior

ZOE:
▪️ Slow resorption
▪️ May remain in periapical tissues after root resorption

Calcium hydroxide–iodoform:
▪️ Rapid and controlled resorption
▪️ Resorbs in harmony with primary tooth exfoliation

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✅ Antimicrobial Activity

▪️ Both materials exhibit broad antimicrobial effects
▪️ Calcium hydroxide–iodoform shows enhanced activity due to:
° High pH (Ca(OH)₂)
° Iodoform bactericidal effect

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✅ Advantages and Limitations

1. ZOE
Advantages
▪️ Long history of clinical use
▪️ Good sealing properties
▪️ Cost-effective

Limitations
▪️ Delayed resorption
▪️ Potential foreign body reaction
▪️ May interfere with eruption of permanent teeth

2. Calcium Hydroxide–Iodoform
Advantages
▪️ Biocompatibility and resorbability
▪️ Superior antimicrobial action
▪️ Favorable effect on periapical healing

Limitations
▪️ Risk of over-resorption within canals
▪️ Possible void formation over time
▪️ Higher cost compared to ZOE

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💬 Discussion
Current literature favors calcium hydroxide–iodoform pastes due to their biological compatibility and resorption profile, which aligns with the natural exfoliation process. While ZOE remains a viable option, its slow resorption and potential interference with permanent tooth eruption are notable concerns.

Clinical decision-making should consider:
▪️ Patient age
▪️ Extent of root resorption
▪️ Presence of periapical pathology

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✍️ Conclusion
Both ZOE and calcium hydroxide–iodoform pastes are effective for pulpectomy in primary teeth. However, calcium hydroxide–iodoform materials demonstrate superior biological behavior, particularly in terms of resorption and tissue compatibility, making them the preferred option in modern pediatric dentistry.

🎯 Recommendations
▪️ Prefer calcium hydroxide–iodoform pastes in cases requiring predictable resorption
▪️ Use ZOE cautiously, especially in teeth close to exfoliation
▪️ Avoid overfilling regardless of material
▪️ Base material selection on clinical and radiographic findings

📚 References

✔ Coll, J. A., Vargas, K., Marghalani, A. A., Chen, C. Y., Al Shamsi, S., & Dhar, V. (2020). A systematic review and meta-analysis of nonvital pulp therapy for primary teeth. Pediatric Dentistry, 42(4), 256–461.
✔ Ramar, K., & Mungara, J. (2010). Clinical and radiographic evaluation of pulpectomies using three root canal filling materials. Journal of Indian Society of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry, 28(1), 25–29. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-4388.60470
✔ Mortazavi, M., & Mesbahi, M. (2004). Comparison of zinc oxide and eugenol, and Vitapex for root canal treatment of necrotic primary teeth. International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry, 14(6), 417–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-263X.2004.00562.x
✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD). (2023). Pulp therapy for primary and immature permanent teeth. Pediatric Dentistry, 45(6), 384–392.
✔ Trairatvorakul, C., & Chunlasikaiwan, S. (2008). Success of pulpectomy with zinc oxide–eugenol vs calcium hydroxide–iodoform paste in primary molars. International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry, 18(2), 144–149. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-263X.2007.00886.x

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TheraCal in Pediatric Dentistry: Uses, Benefits & Limits

TheraCal is a light-cured, resin-modified calcium silicate material widely used in pediatric dentistry for vital pulp therapy. Its bioactive properties and ease of handling have positioned it as an alternative to traditional materials such as calcium hydroxide and mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA).

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This article reviews the versions, properties, clinical applications, advantages, and limitations of TheraCal in pediatric patients.
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✅ Introduction
Vital pulp therapy in primary dentition requires materials that promote pulp healing, dentin bridge formation, and bacterial control. TheraCal has emerged as a modern biomaterial combining calcium release and resin-based handling properties, addressing some limitations of conventional pulp-capping agents.
Its application in pediatric dentistry is increasing due to its clinical efficiency and reduced chair time, which are critical factors in managing young patients.

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✅ What Is TheraCal?
TheraCal is a light-cured, resin-modified calcium silicate liner/base designed for direct and indirect pulp capping. It releases calcium ions, promoting mineralization and pulp healing.

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✅ Versions of TheraCal

TheraCal LC (Light-Cured):
▪️ Most commonly used version
▪️ Indicated for pulp capping and as a liner

TheraCal PT (Pulpotomy Treatment):
▪️ Designed for pulpotomy procedures
▪️ Enhanced handling and consistency for coronal pulp therapy

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✅ Properties of TheraCal

▪️ Calcium ion release → stimulates reparative dentin formation
▪️ Alkaline pH → antibacterial effect
▪️ Light-curing capability → immediate setting
▪️ Low solubility compared to calcium hydroxide
▪️ Resin-modified matrix → improved handling

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✅ Clinical Uses in Pediatric Dentistry

▪️ Direct pulp capping
▪️ Indirect pulp capping
▪️ Pulpotomy (TheraCal PT)
▪️ Base/liner under restorations

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✅ Benefits and Advantages

▪️ Reduced chair time due to light curing
▪️ Immediate placement of restorative material
▪️ Improved seal and marginal adaptation
▪️ Enhanced patient cooperation in pediatric settings
▪️ Bioactivity supporting dentin bridge formation

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✅ Limitations

▪️ Presence of resin components may affect biocompatibility
▪️ Lower long-term evidence compared to MTA
▪️ Technique sensitivity (requires proper isolation)
▪️ Potential polymerization shrinkage

📊 Step-by-step Instructions: TheraCal Application in Pediatric Dentistry

Clinical Step	Key Action	Clinical Consideration
Diagnosis and Case Selection	Confirm vital pulp and absence of irreversible pathology	Essential for treatment success
Cavity Preparation	Remove caries and clean the cavity	Avoid pulp overexposure when possible
Isolation	Apply rubber dam	Prevents contamination and moisture interference
Material Placement	Apply TheraCal in a thin layer (≤1 mm)	Do not overfill; ensure adaptation
Light Curing	Cure according to manufacturer instructions	Ensure adequate light intensity
Final Restoration	Place definitive restorative material	Immediate restoration is possible

💬 Discussion
TheraCal represents a significant advancement in pulp therapy materials, particularly in pediatric dentistry where efficiency and ease of use are essential. Compared to traditional calcium hydroxide, it demonstrates superior physical properties and reduced solubility.
However, concerns remain regarding its resin content and long-term biological performance, especially when compared to materials such as MTA, which have extensive clinical validation. Current evidence supports its use in selective cases, but emphasizes the importance of proper case selection and technique.

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✍️ Conclusion
TheraCal is a promising biomaterial in pediatric dentistry, offering bioactivity, convenience, and improved clinical handling. While it is not a complete replacement for traditional materials, it serves as a valuable option in vital pulp therapy, particularly when efficiency is required. Further long-term studies are necessary to fully establish its clinical reliability.

🎯 Clinical Recommendations
▪️ Use TheraCal in well-selected vital pulp cases
▪️ Ensure proper isolation to optimize outcomes
▪️ Prefer TheraCal PT for pulpotomy procedures
▪️ Consider alternative materials (e.g., MTA) in cases requiring proven long-term success
▪️ Follow manufacturer instructions for curing time and thickness

📚 References

✔ Bortoluzzi, E. A., Niu, L. N., Palani, C. D., El-Awady, A. R., Hammond, B. D., Pei, D. D., ... & Tay, F. R. (2014). Cytotoxicity and osteogenic potential of silicate calcium cements as potential protective materials for pulpal revascularization. Dental Materials, 30(5), 475–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dental.2014.02.002
✔ Gandolfi, M. G., Siboni, F., Prati, C. (2012). Properties of a novel light-cured calcium-silicate direct pulp capping material. International Endodontic Journal, 45(6), 571–579. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2591.2012.02014.x
✔ Hebling, J., Lessa, F. C. R., Nogueira, I., & de Souza Costa, C. A. (2019). Cytotoxicity of resin-based light-cured liners applied in deep cavities. Operative Dentistry, 44(3), E97–E105. https://doi.org/10.2341/17-282-L
✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2023). Pulp therapy for primary and immature permanent teeth. The Reference Manual of Pediatric Dentistry.

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Penicillin G in Dentistry: Obsolete or Still Useful?

Penicillin G (commonly referred to in some regions as “Megacillin”) has historically been a cornerstone in the management of odontogenic infections. However, evolving bacterial resistance patterns and the availability of broader-spectrum antibiotics have shifted prescribing practices.

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✅ Introduction
Odontogenic infections are typically polymicrobial, involving aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, predominantly Gram-positive cocci and anaerobic rods. While penicillin derivatives have long been first-line agents, contemporary guidelines favor drugs with broader coverage and improved pharmacokinetics.
Penicillin G remains pharmacologically significant, but its clinical utility in dentistry has become more selective.

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✅ Pharmacological Characteristics of Penicillin G
Penicillin G (benzylpenicillin) is a beta-lactam antibiotic that acts by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis, leading to cell lysis.

Key characteristics:
▪️ Primarily effective against Gram-positive organisms
▪️ Limited activity against beta-lactamase–producing bacteria
▪️ Poor oral bioavailability (acid-labile)
▪️ Short half-life, requiring frequent dosing
▪️ Administered mainly via parenteral routes (IV/IM)

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✅ Presentations of Penicillin G
Penicillin G is available in several formulations:

▪️ Aqueous crystalline penicillin G (IV): rapid onset, short duration
▪️ Procaine penicillin G (IM): intermediate duration
▪️ Benzathine penicillin G (IM): long-acting, slow release
These formulations differ in absorption rate and duration of action, influencing their clinical application.

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✅ Clinical Indications in Dentistry
Current use of penicillin G in dentistry is limited and typically reserved for:

▪️ Severe odontogenic infections requiring hospitalization
▪️ Spreading infections with systemic involvement
▪️ Cases requiring intravenous antibiotic therapy
It is not commonly used in outpatient dental practice, where oral antibiotics are preferred.

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✅ Limitations in Modern Dental Practice

▪️ High prevalence of beta-lactamase–producing bacteria
▪️ Inconvenient administration (parenteral only)
▪️ Narrow antimicrobial spectrum
▪️ Availability of more effective alternatives

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✅ Current Alternatives
More commonly used antibiotics in dentistry include:

▪️ Amoxicillin (first-line in most cases)
▪️ Amoxicillin-clavulanate (beta-lactamase coverage)
▪️ Clindamycin (penicillin allergy)
▪️ Metronidazole (anaerobic coverage, adjunctive use)

📊 Comparative Table: Common Antibiotics in Dentistry

Antibiotic	Spectrum & Indications	Limitations
Penicillin G	Severe infections (IV/IM), Gram-positive coverage	Parenteral use, resistance, narrow spectrum
Amoxicillin	First-line for odontogenic infections, broad spectrum	Limited against beta-lactamase producers
Amoxicillin-Clavulanate	Resistant infections, beta-lactamase coverage	Gastrointestinal side effects
Clindamycin	Penicillin allergy, anaerobic infections	Risk of Clostridioides difficile infection
Metronidazole	Anaerobic infections (adjunct therapy)	Not effective alone for aerobic bacteria

💬 Discussion
The declining use of penicillin G in dentistry reflects broader changes in antibiotic stewardship and resistance patterns. Although highly effective against susceptible organisms, its pharmacokinetic limitations and narrow spectrum reduce its practicality in routine care.
However, penicillin G retains value in hospital-based settings, particularly in severe infections requiring intravenous therapy. Its continued inclusion in clinical protocols underscores its targeted efficacy in specific scenarios.
The decision to use penicillin G should be guided by clinical severity, microbial considerations, and treatment setting.

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✍️ Conclusion
Penicillin G is not obsolete but has a restricted role in modern dentistry. It remains useful in severe, systemic odontogenic infections, particularly in hospital environments. For routine dental infections, broader-spectrum and orally administered antibiotics are preferred due to greater convenience and efficacy.

🎯 Clinical Recommendations
▪️ Reserve penicillin G for severe infections requiring parenteral therapy
▪️ Prefer amoxicillin-based regimens in outpatient settings
▪️ Consider local resistance patterns when prescribing antibiotics
▪️ Avoid unnecessary antibiotic use to reduce antimicrobial resistance
▪️ Reassess patients within 48–72 hours after initiating therapy

📚 References

✔ Hupp, J. R., Ellis, E., & Tucker, M. R. (2018). Contemporary Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery (7th ed.). Elsevier.
✔ Robertson, D., & Smith, A. J. (2009). The microbiology of the acute dental abscess. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 58(2), 155–162. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.003517-0
✔ Palmer, N. O. A., & Pealing, R. (2016). Antibiotic prescribing in dental practice. British Dental Journal, 221(7), 363–367. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2016.720
✔ American Dental Association. (2019). Evidence-based clinical practice guideline on antibiotic use for the urgent management of dental pain and intraoral swelling. Journal of the American Dental Association, 150(11), 906–921.e12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adaj.2019.08.020

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Pediatric Dental Antibiotics: Emergency Protocols 2026

The use of systemic antibiotics in pediatric dental emergencies remains a critical yet frequently misapplied intervention. Contemporary guidelines emphasize targeted antibiotic therapy, reserving prescriptions for cases with systemic involvement or spreading infection.

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This article reviews updated emergency antibiotic protocols in pediatric dentistry for 2026, including indications, drug selection, dosage, and clinical considerations.
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✅ Introduction
Dental infections in children are primarily managed through definitive operative treatment, such as drainage, pulpectomy, or extraction. However, systemic antibiotics may be indicated in specific scenarios involving systemic signs, cellulitis, or immunocompromised patients. Overprescription contributes to antibiotic resistance, a global health concern, necessitating strict adherence to evidence-based protocols.

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✅ Indications for Antibiotic Use in Pediatric Dental Emergencies

Appropriate Indications
▪️ Facial cellulitis or rapidly spreading infection
▪️ Fever (>38°C), malaise, or lymphadenopathy
▪️ Trismus or dysphagia
▪️ Immunocompromised pediatric patients
▪️ Acute odontogenic infections with systemic involvement

Inappropriate Indications
▪️ Localized abscess without systemic signs
▪️ Irreversible pulpitis
▪️ Chronic apical periodontitis
▪️ Routine dental pain without infection

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✅ Antibiotics of Choice (2026 Update)

First-Line Therapy
▪️ Amoxicillin
° Dosage: 20–40 mg/kg/day divided every 8 hours
° Broad-spectrum coverage and favorable safety profile

Alternative (Penicillin Allergy)
▪️ Clindamycin
° Dosage: 10–20 mg/kg/day divided every 6–8 hours
° Effective against anaerobic bacteria

Adjunctive Therapy (Severe Infections)
▪️ Amoxicillin-Clavulanate
° Indicated in β-lactamase-producing infections
▪️ Metronidazole (combined therapy)
° Used with penicillin for enhanced anaerobic coverage

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✅ Dosage and Duration

▪️ Typical duration: 3–7 days, reassessed clinically
▪️ Emphasis on shortest effective course
▪️ Adjust dosage according to weight and severity

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✅ Clinical Considerations

▪️ Always prioritize source control (drainage or extraction)
▪️ Avoid empirical overuse of antibiotics
▪️ Monitor for adverse reactions and compliance
▪️ Educate caregivers on correct administration

📊 Summary Table: Pediatric Emergency Antibiotic Protocols

Clinical Situation	Recommended Antibiotic	Key Considerations
Localized abscess	No antibiotic required	Perform drainage or extraction
Systemic infection	Amoxicillin	First-line therapy; weight-based dosing
Penicillin allergy	Clindamycin	Monitor for GI side effects
Severe spreading infection	Amoxicillin-clavulanate ± Metronidazole	Broad-spectrum coverage required
Treatment duration	3–7 days	Reassess clinically

💬 Discussion
Recent guidelines from organizations such as the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD) and the American Dental Association (ADA) emphasize antibiotic stewardship. Evidence indicates that many dental infections resolve with local treatment alone, and antibiotics should not replace operative care. The inappropriate use of antibiotics in pediatric dentistry contributes significantly to antimicrobial resistance, allergic reactions, and microbiome disruption.
Furthermore, emerging trends highlight the need for precision-based prescribing, considering patient-specific risk factors and microbial profiles. The integration of updated protocols in 2026 reflects a shift toward minimally necessary pharmacological intervention.

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✍️ Conclusion
Antibiotics in pediatric dental emergencies must be prescribed judiciously and based on clear clinical indications. Current protocols reinforce that antibiotics are adjunctive, not primary treatments, and their misuse should be avoided to prevent resistance and adverse outcomes.

🎯 Clinical Recommendations
▪️ Prescribe antibiotics only when systemic involvement is present
▪️ Use amoxicillin as first-line therapy when indicated
▪️ Adjust treatment based on patient weight and allergy status
▪️ Limit duration to the shortest effective course
▪️ Reinforce definitive dental treatment as priority

📚 References

✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2023). Use of antibiotic therapy for pediatric dental patients. Pediatric Dentistry, 45(6), 408–416.
✔ American Dental Association. (2019). Antibiotic use for the urgent management of pulpal- and periapical-related dental pain and intraoral swelling. Journal of the American Dental Association, 150(11), 906–921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adaj.2019.08.020
✔ Cope, A. L., Francis, N. A., Wood, F., & Chestnutt, I. G. (2016). Antibiotic prescribing in UK general dental practice: A cross-sectional study. Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology, 44(2), 145–153. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdoe.12199
✔ Robertson, D., Smith, A. J. (2009). The microbiology of the acute dental abscess. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 58(2), 155–162. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.003517-0

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Dexamethasone in Pediatric Dentistry: Safe Dosage Guide

Dexamethasone is widely used in pediatric dentistry for postoperative inflammation and pain control.

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✅ Introduction
The control of postoperative inflammation in pediatric patients requires safe and predictable pharmacological strategies. Dexamethasone, due to its long half-life and potent anti-inflammatory effect, is frequently used as an adjunct in dental procedures. However, its use must prioritize safe dosage guidelines and patient-specific risk assessment.

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✅ Safe Pediatric Dosage of Dexamethasone

Weight-Based Dosing (Core Recommendation)
▪️ Standard dose: 0.1–0.2 mg/kg (single dose)
▪️ Maximum dose:
°Children: 4 mg (commonly recommended ceiling)
°Adolescents: up to 8 mg, depending on clinical indication

Clinical Dosing Examples
▪️ 10 kg child → 1–2 mg
▪️ 20 kg child → 2–4 mg

Key Principles
▪️ Prefer single-dose administration
▪️ Avoid repeated dosing unless strictly indicated
▪️ Adjust dose based on systemic condition and procedure complexity

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✅ Routes of Administration

Submucosal (preferred in dentistry):
▪️ Provides localized effect with reduced systemic exposure

Oral:
▪️ Convenient, widely used in outpatient settings

Intramuscular:
▪️ Useful in surgical settings when oral intake is limited

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✅ Clinical Indications in Pediatric Dentistry

1. Oral Surgery
▪️ Complicated extractions
▪️ Soft tissue surgery
▪️ eduction of postoperative edema and trismus

2. Endodontic Procedures
▪️ Pulpotomy and pulpectomy
▪️ Prevention of postoperative pain and flare-ups

3. Dental Trauma
▪️ Control of acute inflammatory response in soft tissues

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✅ Age Limits and Safety Restrictions

▪️ less than 1 year: Avoid unless medically justified
▪️ 1–12 years: Safe with strict weight-based dosing
▪️ Adolescents: Adult-like protocols with monitoring

Important: Pediatric patients have higher sensitivity to corticosteroids, requiring conservative use.

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✅ Risks and Adverse Effects

Short-Term Use (Single Dose)
▪️ Generally safe and well tolerated
▪️ Possible mild effects:
° Behavioral changes
° Gastrointestinal discomfort

Potential Risks
▪️ Hyperglycemia
▪️ Immunosuppression
▪️ Delayed wound healing

Repeated or Inappropriate Use
▪️ Growth suppression
▪️ Adrenal suppression
▪️ Increased infection risk

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✅ Drug Combinations

NSAIDs (e.g., ibuprofen)
▪️ Synergistic effect for pain and inflammation
▪️ Monitor for gastrointestinal irritation

Local Anesthetics
▪️ Enhances overall postoperative comfort

Antibiotics
▪️ Only when infection is present
▪️ Dexamethasone acts as an adjunct, not a replacement

📊 Summary Table: Safe Use of Dexamethasone in Pediatric Dentistry

Parameter	Clinical Application	Safety Considerations
Dosage	0.1–0.2 mg/kg single dose for inflammation control	Do not exceed 4 mg in children
Administration Route	Submucosal preferred for localized effect	Systemic exposure varies by route
Indications	Oral surgery, endodontics, trauma management	Use only in moderate/severe inflammation
Age Considerations	Safe in children >1 year with adjustment	Avoid in infants unless necessary
Adverse Effects	Minimal in single-dose protocols	Risk of hyperglycemia, delayed healing
Drug Combinations	Effective with NSAIDs for pain control	Monitor gastrointestinal risk

💬 Discussion
Current evidence supports the single-dose, weight-based use of dexamethasone as an effective strategy to reduce postoperative morbidity in pediatric dental patients. The submucosal route is increasingly preferred due to its localized effect and improved safety profile. However, clinicians must carefully evaluate systemic conditions and age-related risks before administration.

✍️ Conclusion
Dexamethasone is a safe and effective adjunct in pediatric dentistry when administered using weight-based dosing protocols. The emphasis on single-dose regimens and proper patient selection ensures optimal outcomes while minimizing adverse effects.

🎯 Recommendations
▪️ Use 0.1–0.2 mg/kg single-dose protocols
▪️ Prefer submucosal administration when feasible
▪️ Avoid repeated dosing
▪️ Evaluate systemic health and contraindications
▪️ Combine cautiously with NSAIDs

📚 References

✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD). (2023). Guideline on use of pharmacologic agents in pediatric dental patients. Pediatric Dentistry, 45(6), 292–306.
✔ Alcântara, C. E. P., et al. (2019). Effect of dexamethasone on postoperative pain in pediatric dental procedures. International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry, 29(5), 615–623. https://doi.org/10.1111/ipd.12488
✔ Markiewicz, M. R., Brady, M. F., Ding, E. L., & Dodson, T. B. (2020). Corticosteroids reduce postoperative morbidity after third molar surgery. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 78(4), 559–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joms.2019.10.021
✔ Waljee, A. K., et al. (2017). Short-term use of oral corticosteroids and related harms. BMJ, 357, j1415. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j1415

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