Dexamethasone + Diclofenac: Is It Safe in Dentistry?

The combination of dexamethasone and diclofenac in dentistry is used to manage postoperative inflammation, pain, and swelling, particularly following oral surgical procedures such as third molar extraction and other interventions involving significant tissue trauma.

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These medications have complementary pharmacological mechanisms: dexamethasone is a corticosteroid that suppresses inflammatory responses, whereas diclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that reduces prostaglandin synthesis through cyclooxygenase inhibition.

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Although their combined use may provide effective control of postoperative symptoms, it requires careful clinical assessment because both drugs have potential adverse effects, contraindications, and interactions. Their combination should not be considered a routine prescription for every dental procedure.

✅ Pharmacological mechanisms
The combination involves two different anti-inflammatory pathways.

Drug	Pharmacological Class	Main Mechanism	Clinical Effect
Dexamethasone	Glucocorticoid	Inhibits phospholipase A2 activity indirectly through lipocortin and suppresses inflammatory mediator production.	Reduces inflammatory edema and tissue inflammation.
Diclofenac	Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)	Inhibits COX-1 and COX-2, reducing prostaglandin synthesis.	Provides analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects.

The combination targets different stages of the inflammatory response. However, complementary mechanisms do not necessarily translate into superior clinical outcomes in every dental procedure.

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✅ Clinical applications in dentistry
The combination has primarily been investigated in oral and maxillofacial surgery, particularly in procedures associated with substantial postoperative inflammation.

Potential clinical applications include:
▪️ Surgical extraction of impacted third molars: Management of postoperative pain, facial swelling, and trismus.
▪️ Complex dentoalveolar surgery: Reduction of inflammatory symptoms following extensive tissue manipulation.
▪️ Selected oral surgical procedures: Adjunctive control of postoperative inflammatory responses when clinically justified.

It is important to distinguish postoperative inflammation from infection. Neither medication eliminates the underlying cause of an odontogenic infection, and dexamethasone may mask clinical manifestations of infection.

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✅ Clinical evidence: Does the combination improve postoperative outcomes?
A randomized, open-label pilot clinical trial by Bamgbose et al. (2006) evaluated 150 patients undergoing third-molar extraction. Three protocols were compared:

1. Dexamethasone 8 mg intramuscularly plus diclofenac potassium 50 mg orally.
2. Dexamethasone 8 mg intramuscularly plus acetaminophen 1,000 mg orally.
3. Diclofenac potassium 50 mg orally alone.

The combination of dexamethasone and diclofenac produced a significantly higher proportion of patients reporting no pain compared with the other groups (44% versus 22% and 24%, respectively). It also reduced facial swelling compared with diclofenac monotherapy. However, the study was a pilot trial with an open-label design, and its findings should not be interpreted as definitive evidence of superiority.
Another randomized clinical trial by Lima et al. (2017) compared postoperative dexamethasone with diclofenac following third-molar removal. Dexamethasone produced better outcomes for swelling and trismus, while patients receiving diclofenac required more rescue analgesia. This study compared the medications rather than their combined administration.
These findings suggest that corticosteroids may contribute to postoperative edema control, while NSAIDs provide an important analgesic effect.

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✅ Dosage and administration considerations
There is no universally standardized dexamethasone–diclofenac dosage protocol for dental procedures. The regimen should be individualized according to the surgical procedure, patient characteristics, medical history, and formulation.
The clinical trial by Bamgbose et al. (2006) investigated a specific protocol involving dexamethasone 8 mg intramuscularly and diclofenac potassium 50 mg orally. These doses describe the research protocol and should not be interpreted as a universal prescription.

Important considerations include:
▪️ Use the lowest effective NSAID dose for the shortest appropriate duration.
▪️ Select the corticosteroid route according to the clinical indication and patient circumstances.
▪️ Avoid automatically combining both drugs after uncomplicated dental procedures.
▪️ Reassess patients with persistent or worsening postoperative symptoms rather than extending medication empirically.

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✅ Contraindications, precautions, and adverse effects
Combining a corticosteroid with an NSAID requires particular attention to gastrointestinal safety. Concomitant systemic corticosteroid and NSAID use can increase the risk of gastrointestinal ulceration and bleeding.

Medication	Important Precautions
Diclofenac	Peptic ulcer disease, previous gastrointestinal bleeding, renal impairment, cardiovascular disease, uncontrolled hypertension, NSAID hypersensitivity, and certain stages of pregnancy.
Dexamethasone	Uncontrolled diabetes, active or inadequately controlled infection, immunosuppression, systemic fungal infection, and relevant corticosteroid hypersensitivity.
Combination	Increased gastrointestinal risk, particularly in patients with a history of ulceration, anticoagulant use, or other bleeding risk factors.

Sources: Official prescribing information for diclofenac and dexamethasone

Potential adverse effects

Diclofenac:
▪️ Gastrointestinal irritation, ulceration, and bleeding.
▪️ Renal impairment and fluid retention.
▪️ Increased cardiovascular thrombotic risk.
▪️ Hepatic enzyme elevations and hypersensitivity reactions.

Dexamethasone:
▪️ Transient hyperglycemia.
▪️ Mood changes and sleep disturbances.
▪️ Immunosuppression and increased susceptibility to infection.
▪️ Potential masking of infectious symptoms.

Combined treatment: The most relevant concern is the increased gastrointestinal risk associated with concurrent NSAID and systemic corticosteroid administration. A short treatment course does not eliminate this risk.

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💬 Discussion
The pharmacological rationale for combining dexamethasone and diclofenac is based on their complementary anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Clinical evidence, particularly in third-molar surgery, suggests that this combination can improve certain postoperative outcomes.
However, the available evidence should be interpreted cautiously. The study by Bamgbose et al. (2006) provides encouraging findings, but its pilot design and open-label methodology limit the strength of its conclusions.
An important consideration is the American Dental Association (ADA) clinical practice guideline published in 2024. This guideline recommends NSAIDs, alone or combined with acetaminophen, as first-line pharmacological treatment for postoperative pain following surgical tooth extraction. It also suggests against routinely adding oral, submucosal, or intramuscular corticosteroids to standard analgesic therapy because the available evidence indicates, at most, a trivial reduction in postoperative pain.
The ADA guideline does not specifically evaluate corticosteroids for managing postoperative facial swelling or trismus as separate inflammatory complications. Therefore, its recommendation should not be interpreted as evidence that corticosteroids have no role in selected oral surgical situations.
Overall, dexamethasone plus diclofenac may be considered in selected surgical cases, but routine combined administration is not supported by sufficiently strong evidence.

✍️ Conclusion
The combination of dexamethasone and diclofenac in dentistry offers a pharmacological approach to managing postoperative inflammation and pain, particularly following third-molar surgery.
Nevertheless, its clinical use requires individualized assessment because the potential benefits must be balanced against gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, renal, and immunological risks.
For most routine dental procedures, NSAIDs remain an evidence-supported first-line option for postoperative pain management. The addition of dexamethasone should be reserved for selected indications rather than considered a standard component of every postoperative prescription.

🎯 Clinical Recommendations
1. Prioritize NSAID-based analgesia according to current dental pain guidelines rather than routinely prescribing dual anti-inflammatory therapy.
2. Consider the combination only when a specific inflammatory indication justifies the additional corticosteroid exposure.
3. Evaluate gastrointestinal, renal, cardiovascular, and metabolic risk factors before prescribing.
4. Do not use corticosteroids to suppress swelling associated with an untreated odontogenic infection; establish appropriate source control and infection management.

📚 References
✔ Bamgbose, B. O., Akinwande, J. A., Adeyemo, W. L., Ladeinde, A. L., Arotiba, G. T., & Ogunlewe, M. O. (2006). Prospective, randomized, open-label, pilot clinical trial comparing the effects of dexamethasone coadministered with diclofenac potassium or acetaminophen and diclofenac potassium monotherapy after third-molar extraction in adults. Current Therapeutic Research, 67(4), 229–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.curtheres.2006.07.001
✔ Carrasco-Labra, A., Polk, D. E., Urquhart, O., Aghaloo, T., Claytor, J. W., Jr., Dhar, V., Dionne, R. A., Espinoza, L., Gordon, S. M., Hersh, E. V., Law, A. S., Li, B. S.-K., Schwartz, P. J., Suda, K. J., Turturro, M. A., Wright, M. L., Dawson, T., Miroshnychenko, A., Pahlke, S., ... Moore, P. A. (2024). Evidence-based clinical practice guideline for the pharmacologic management of acute dental pain in adolescents, adults, and older adults. The Journal of the American Dental Association, 155(2), 102–117.e9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adaj.2023.10.009
✔ Lima, C. A. A., Favarini, V. T., Torres, A. M., da Silva, R. A., & Sato, F. R. L. (2017). Oral dexamethasone decreases postoperative pain, swelling, and trismus more than diclofenac following third molar removal: A randomized controlled clinical trial. Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery, 21(3), 321–326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10006-017-0635-0
✔ U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2026). Diclofenac sodium: Prescribing information. DailyMed. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/
✔ U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2025). Dexamethasone tablets: Prescribing information. DailyMed. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/

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Best Archwire Sequence for Mild, Moderate, and Severe Crowding

Selecting an appropriate orthodontic archwire sequence is essential for achieving efficient, controlled, and biologically appropriate tooth movement during fixed appliance treatment.

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The initial degree of dental crowding significantly influences wire selection, particularly during the alignment and leveling phase.

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Although conventional treatment protocols follow a progression from round nickel-titanium (NiTi) wires to rectangular NiTi and stainless steel (SS) wires, the sequence should not be determined exclusively by the severity of crowding. Factors such as periodontal support, root position, arch form, bracket prescription, extraction requirements, and the magnitude of tooth displacement must also be considered.
This guide outlines practical archwire sequences for mild, moderate, and severe crowding, emphasizing clinical control and minimizing unnecessary force application.

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🔹 Classification of crowding and wire selection
For clinical planning, crowding can be categorized according to the approximate space deficiency per dental arch. These values are practical descriptive ranges rather than universally validated diagnostic thresholds.

Crowding Severity	Approximate Space Deficiency
Mild	1–3 mm
Moderate	4–6 mm
Severe	7 mm or more

The initial archwire should provide adequate flexibility to accommodate displaced teeth without requiring excessive activation or force. As alignment progresses, progressively stiffer wires can be introduced to improve three-dimensional control.

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🔹 Recommended archwire sequences
The following sequences are practical clinical frameworks for conventional preadjusted edgewise appliances with a 0.022-inch bracket slot. Wire dimensions should be adapted to the bracket system, clinical response, and individual treatment objectives.

A. Mild Crowding (1–3 mm)

Sequence	Archwire	Clinical Objective
1	0.014-inch NiTi	Initial alignment
2	0.016-inch NiTi	Continued alignment and leveling
3	0.016 × 0.022-inch NiTi	Early torque and rotational control
4	0.019 × 0.025-inch SS	Working archwire

Clinical considerations: Mild crowding generally permits a relatively short alignment sequence. Transition to rectangular wires should occur when sufficient alignment has been achieved and the wire can be engaged without excessive activation.

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B. Moderate crowding (4–6 mm)

Sequence	Archwire	Clinical Objective
1	0.012-inch NiTi	Initial engagement of displaced teeth
2	0.014-inch NiTi	Progressive alignment
3	0.016-inch NiTi	Alignment and leveling
4	0.016 × 0.022-inch NiTi	Transition to rectangular mechanics
5	0.017 × 0.025-inch NiTi	Improved three-dimensional control
6	0.019 × 0.025-inch SS	Working archwire

Clinical considerations: Moderate crowding may require additional alignment stages before rectangular wire engagement. The clinician should assess whether the available arch perimeter is sufficient or whether space creation is necessary through interproximal reduction, arch development within anatomical limits, or extraction mechanics.

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C. Severe crowding (7 mm or more)

Sequence	Archwire	Clinical Objective
1	0.012-inch NiTi	Initial engagement where feasible
2	0.014-inch NiTi	Progressive alignment
3	0.016-inch NiTi	Continued alignment and leveling
4	0.016 × 0.022-inch NiTi	Controlled transition to rectangular wires
5	0.017 × 0.025-inch NiTi	Further alignment and torque development
6	0.019 × 0.025-inch SS	Working archwire when alignment permits

Clinical considerations: Severe crowding requires particular attention to periodontal boundaries, root position, anchorage, and available space. A flexible initial wire should not be forcibly engaged into severely displaced brackets. Selective engagement, bypassing individual teeth, or auxiliary mechanics may be necessary.
Importantly, severe crowding cannot be managed simply by increasing the number of archwires. A comprehensive space-management strategy must be established before attempting complete alignment.

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🔹 Comparative clinical overview
The following table summarizes the proposed sequences for quick clinical reference.

Crowding	Initial wire	Intermediate wires	Working wire
Mild 1–3 mm	0.014 NiTi	0.016 NiTi 0.016 × 0.022 NiTi	0.019 × 0.025 SS
Moderate 4–6 mm	0.012 NiTi	0.014 NiTi 0.016 NiTi 0.016 × 0.022 NiTi 0.017 × 0.025 NiTi	0.019 × 0.025 SS
Severe ≥7 mm	0.012 NiTi	0.014 NiTi 0.016 NiTi 0.016 × 0.022 NiTi 0.017 × 0.025 NiTi	0.019 × 0.025 SS

All dimensions are in inches. The sequences are illustrative protocols, not evidence-established mandatory progressions.

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🔹 Important clinical factors influencing archwire progression

Bracket slot dimensions
The proposed sequences are designed for a 0.022-inch slot system. In 0.018-inch systems, the intermediate and final wire dimensions must be modified according to the available slot and treatment objectives.

Periodontal considerations
In patients with thin periodontal phenotype, reduced alveolar bone support, or existing gingival recession, excessive labial movement during alignment should be avoided. Arch expansion should remain within the patient's anatomical limits.

Space management
The presence of moderate or severe crowding does not automatically indicate extraction treatment. The clinician should evaluate:
▪️ Available arch perimeter and tooth-size discrepancy.
▪️ Incisor inclination and planned final position.
▪️ Facial profile and soft-tissue objectives.
▪️ Anchorage requirements.
▪️ Periodontal and alveolar bone boundaries.

Rectangular wire engagement
Progression to rectangular NiTi should be based on the degree of alignment and the ability to engage the wire without excessive deflection. A larger wire should not be selected simply because the previous wire has been used for a predetermined period.

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💬 Discussion
The selection of an optimal orthodontic archwire sequence remains dependent on individual clinical circumstances rather than a universally established protocol.
The 2024 Cochrane systematic review by Liu et al. evaluated 29 randomized clinical trials involving 1,915 participants. The authors concluded that available evidence is insufficient to establish the superiority of a particular initial archwire material or size regarding alignment rate, pain, or root resorption.
Similarly, Papageorgiou et al. (2014) reported insufficient evidence to recommend one specific archwire sequence, highlighting the limitations of available comparative clinical studies.
A randomized clinical trial published in 2024 also found comparable alignment effectiveness among three different sizes of superelastic NiTi archwires, suggesting that wire selection should consider clinical circumstances rather than assuming that larger initial wires produce better outcomes.
Consequently, the sequences presented in this guide should be interpreted as practical clinical frameworks, not scientifically validated protocols specifically established for each crowding category.

✍️ Conclusion
The best archwire sequence for mild, moderate, and severe crowding is determined by the initial tooth displacement, biological limitations, and treatment objectives.
Mild crowding generally requires fewer alignment stages, whereas moderate and severe cases may benefit from a more gradual progression through smaller and more flexible NiTi wires.
The transition to rectangular NiTi and stainless steel should occur only when clinically appropriate. Ultimately, controlled force application, adequate space management, and individualized wire selection are more important than following a rigid archwire sequence.

🎯 Clinical Recommendations
1. Prioritize passive or minimally activated initial wire engagement rather than forcing a wire into severely displaced brackets.
2. Evaluate the periodontal phenotype and alveolar boundaries before selecting mechanics intended to resolve crowding.
3. Do not use archwire progression as a substitute for proper space analysis and anchorage planning.
4. Introduce rectangular wires according to alignment, engagement feasibility, and the required degree of torque control.

📚 References
✔ Liu, C., Wei, Z., Jian, F., McIntyre, G., Millett, D. T., Lai, W., & Wang, Y. (2024). Initial arch wires used in orthodontic treatment with fixed appliances. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2024(2), CD007859. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007859.pub5
✔ Papageorgiou, S. N., Konstantinidis, I., Papadopoulou, K., Jäger, A., & Bourauel, C. (2014). A systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental clinical evidence on initial aligning archwires and archwire sequences. Orthodontics & Craniofacial Research, 17(4), 197–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/ocr.12048
✔ Comparison of alignment efficiency of different sizes of superelastic nickel-titanium archwires in the initial phase of fixed orthodontic treatment: A single-center, double-blind randomized clinical trial. (2024). American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, 166(2), 104–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajodo.2024.04.003

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Bednar's Aphthae: Causes, Diagnosis, and Management

Bednar's aphthae are traumatic oral ulcers that occur primarily in newborns and young infants. They typically develop on the posterior region of the hard palate, near the junction with the soft palate, as a result of repetitive mechanical irritation.

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Although these lesions are generally benign and self-limiting, they may cause discomfort during feeding and require differentiation from other neonatal oral lesions, particularly infectious and congenital conditions.

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Understanding their characteristic location, clinical presentation, and underlying mechanism is essential for establishing an accurate diagnosis and avoiding unnecessary treatment.

✅ Etiology and Pathophysiology
The exact pathogenesis of Bednar's aphthae remains incompletely understood. However, mechanical trauma and repetitive pressure on the palatal mucosa are considered the principal contributing factors.

Commonly associated factors include:
▪️ Bottle-feeding: Repeated contact between the nipple and posterior palate.
▪️ Breastfeeding: Mechanical pressure during sucking.
▪️ Incorrect feeding position: Feeding the infant in a horizontal position may increase palatal pressure.
▪️ Pacifier use: Repetitive friction or pressure against the palatal tissues.
▪️ Nipple characteristics: Inappropriate nipple design or flow may contribute to feeding-related trauma.

The neonatal oral mucosa is particularly susceptible to mechanical injury. Repetitive irritation can result in localized epithelial damage and ulcer formation.

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✅ Clinical Features
Bednar's aphthae have characteristic clinical features that facilitate diagnosis.

▪️ Location: Posterior hard palate, particularly near the junction with the soft palate.
▪️ Appearance: Superficial, shallow ulcerations with whitish or yellowish surfaces.
▪️ Shape: Typically oval or round, sometimes linear.
▪️ Distribution: Frequently bilateral and symmetrical, although unilateral presentations may occur.
▪️ Surrounding tissue: May exhibit a slightly erythematous margin.
▪️ Symptoms: Often asymptomatic, but some infants experience irritability, prolonged feeding time, or reduced milk intake.

Clinical observations reported by Nam et al. (2016) demonstrated that feeding difficulties were common, although some lesions were discovered incidentally during routine examinations.

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✅ Diagnosis
The diagnosis of Bednar's aphthae is primarily clinical, based on the infant's age, characteristic ulcer location, lesion morphology, and feeding history.

A comprehensive oral examination should evaluate:
▪️ Location, number, symmetry, and appearance of the ulcers.
▪️ Presence of erythema, bleeding, or additional oral lesions.
▪️ Feeding techniques, bottle nipple characteristics, and pacifier use.
▪️ Associated symptoms, including fever and feeding intolerance.

Laboratory investigations and biopsies are not routinely indicated when the clinical presentation is characteristic and the infant is otherwise healthy.
However, atypical lesions or systemic symptoms require further evaluation to exclude infectious or other pathological conditions.

✅ Differential Diagnosis
Several neonatal oral conditions may resemble Bednar's aphthae. Accurate differentiation is essential to prevent unnecessary treatment.

Condition	Characteristic Clinical Findings
Bednar's aphthae	Superficial, frequently symmetrical ulcers at the posterior hard palate.
Oral candidiasis	White plaques on the tongue, buccal mucosa, or palate that are not easily removed.
Neonatal herpes simplex	Vesicles progressing to multiple ulcers, often accompanied by systemic symptoms.
Traumatic oral ulcer	Localized ulceration associated with identifiable mechanical injury.
Epstein pearls	Small, white or yellow keratin-filled cysts along the palatal midline; non-ulcerative.
Herpangina	Vesicular and ulcerative lesions predominantly involving the soft palate and posterior oropharynx, often with fever.

Clinical distinction: Bednar's aphthae are generally localized, mechanically associated lesions without systemic manifestations. Fever, widespread oral ulceration, or vesicular lesions should raise suspicion of an alternative diagnosis.

✅ Management and Treatment Bednar's aphthae are benign and generally resolve spontaneously. Treatment focuses on eliminating mechanical irritation rather than prescribing medication.

The following measures are recommended:
1. Correct feeding position: Encourage a semi-upright feeding position to reduce repetitive pressure on the posterior palate.
2. Evaluate bottle-feeding technique: Assess nipple flow, design, and positioning. Correct any feeding difficulties without arbitrarily enlarging the nipple opening.
3. Assess pacifier use: Identify whether the pacifier contributes to repetitive palatal irritation and modify its use when necessary.
4. Monitor oral healing: Reassess the lesions and feeding behavior to ensure progressive improvement.
5. Maintain adequate nutrition: Monitor milk intake, hydration, and weight gain when feeding difficulties are present.

Pharmacological treatment is generally unnecessary. Antibiotics, antifungals, and topical corticosteroids are not indicated for uncomplicated Bednar's aphthae.
Topical anesthetics should not be routinely applied to neonatal oral ulcers because of potential adverse effects.

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✅ Prognosis and Healing
The prognosis of Bednar's aphthae is excellent. Most lesions resolve spontaneously after eliminating the contributing mechanical factors.
Clinical observations indicate that healing generally occurs within one to four weeks, although the recovery period varies according to lesion severity and continued irritation.
Persistent, enlarging, recurrent, or atypical ulcers require reassessment to exclude other conditions.

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💬 Discussion
Bednar's aphthae represent an important diagnostic consideration in neonatal and infant oral pathology. Despite their benign nature, these lesions may be overlooked or mistaken for infectious ulcerative conditions.
The study by Nebgen et al. (2010), involving 1,494 neonates, identified Bednar's aphthae in 15.8% of examined infants whose entire palate could be visualized. This finding suggests that the condition may be more frequent than commonly recognized.
Furthermore, Nam et al. (2016) demonstrated that correcting feeding position and technique was associated with lesion resolution in their retrospective series of 16 infants.
Although the available evidence is limited by relatively small clinical studies and observational designs, findings consistently support mechanical irritation as an important contributing factor.
Early recognition and appropriate parental education are therefore central to conservative management, reducing unnecessary diagnostic procedures and medication use.

✍️ Conclusion
Bednar's aphthae are benign traumatic ulcers affecting the posterior palatal mucosa of newborns and infants. Their characteristic clinical distribution, association with feeding-related mechanical pressure, and spontaneous healing facilitate clinical recognition.
Management should prioritize identifying and eliminating the source of irritation, supporting adequate feeding, and monitoring healing. Recognition of these lesions is essential for avoiding unnecessary pharmacological interventions and ensuring appropriate neonatal oral care.

🎯 Clinical Recommendations
For pediatric dentists and healthcare professionals, the following recommendations support practical clinical management:

▪️ Prioritize clinical diagnosis: Consider Bednar's aphthae when symmetrical posterior palatal ulcers are identified in an otherwise healthy infant.
▪️ Evaluate feeding mechanics: Examine feeding position and the interaction between the nipple or pacifier and palatal tissues.
▪️ Avoid unnecessary medication: Do not prescribe antimicrobial agents for uncomplicated traumatic lesions.
▪️ Establish follow-up: Confirm lesion regression and adequate feeding. Investigate promptly if systemic symptoms, dehydration, or atypical progression occurs.

📚 References
✔ Nam, S. W., Ahn, S. H., Shin, S. M., & Jeong, G. (2016). Clinical features of Bednar's aphthae in infants. Korean Journal of Pediatrics, 59(1), 30–34. https://doi.org/10.3345/kjp.2016.59.1.30
✔ Nebgen, S., Kasper, H. U., Schäfer, D., Christ, H., & Roth, B. (2010). Bednar's aphthae in neonates: Incidence and associated factors. Neonatology, 98(2), 208–211. https://doi.org/10.1159/000285523
✔ Pedra, C., Terra, C. M., Ejzenberg, B., Baldacci, E. R., & Okay, Y. (1996). Oral palatine ulcers of a traumatic nature in infants: Bednar's aphthae. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 35(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-5876(95)01282-6
✔ Chaudhry, A. (2021). Infantile Bednar's aphthae. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 57(10), 1717. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.1_15383

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Recommendations for Drug Therapy in Pediatric Dentistry

Medication therapy in pediatric dentistry requires individualized decisions based on the child's age, body weight, medical history, developmental stage, and clinical condition.

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Physiological differences between children and adults influence drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination, making accurate prescribing essential.

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The selection of medications should be guided by the diagnosis, therapeutic objectives, potential adverse effects, and established pediatric dosing recommendations.
This article presents practical, evidence-based medication recommendations for pediatric dental patients, focusing on analgesics, antibiotics, local anesthetics, and medication safety.

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✅ General Recommendations for Medication Prescribing
Before prescribing any medication, the dentist should perform a comprehensive assessment of the patient.
The following recommendations should be incorporated into routine clinical practice:

▪️ Verify the child's current body weight in kilograms: Weight-based calculations are essential for most pediatric medications.
▪️ Review the medical history: Identify allergies, systemic diseases, hepatic or renal impairment, and other relevant conditions.
▪️ Evaluate current medications: Check for potential drug interactions and duplicate active ingredients.
▪️ Establish an accurate diagnosis: Medication selection must address the underlying condition rather than symptoms alone.
▪️ Select an appropriate formulation: Consider the child's age, ability to swallow, cooperation, and available pharmaceutical preparations.
▪️ Determine the appropriate dose and duration: Follow established pediatric dosing references and product-specific recommendations.
▪️ Provide clear caregiver instructions: Specify the dose, administration interval, duration, and potential adverse effects.

Important recommendation: Pediatric doses should never exceed the recommended adult maximum dose. All calculations must account for the drug's concentration and the maximum permitted daily dose.

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✅ Recommendations for Analgesics and Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
Pain management is an essential component of pediatric dental treatment. According to the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), particularly ibuprofen, and acetaminophen are first-line pharmacological options for pediatric dental pain.
The following dosage ranges are included in the AAPD medication reference:

Medication	General Pediatric Dosage	Clinical Recommendations
Ibuprofen	4–10 mg/kg/dose every 6–8 hours	Consider for inflammatory dental pain when no contraindications exist.
Acetaminophen (Paracetamol)	10–15 mg/kg/dose every 4–6 hours	Consider when NSAIDs are contraindicated or as an alternative analgesic.

Clinical recommendations:

▪️ Use ibuprofen when its anti-inflammatory properties are clinically beneficial and the patient has no contraindications.
▪️ Avoid ibuprofen in children with significant dehydration, renal impairment, active gastrointestinal bleeding, or other relevant contraindications.
▪️ Consider acetaminophen in patients who cannot receive NSAIDs, taking hepatic function into account.
▪️ Avoid duplicate acetaminophen administration through combination medications.
▪️ Do not routinely alternate or combine analgesics without a clearly established dosing schedule.
▪️ Reserve opioid analgesics for exceptional circumstances, following appropriate specialist assessment and current prescribing restrictions.

Dosage safety: According to the AAPD medication reference, acetaminophen should not exceed 75 mg/kg/day in children younger than 12 years, or 4,000 mg in 24 hours, whichever is lower. Ibuprofen doses should also comply with the applicable maximum single and daily limits.

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✅ Recommendations for Antibiotic Use in Pediatric Dentistry
Systemic antibiotics should be prescribed only when a bacterial infection warrants antimicrobial treatment. They must be considered an adjunct to definitive dental management rather than a replacement for treatment of the infection source.

Commonly considered antibiotics include:

Antibiotic	Clinical Application	Prescribing Recommendation
Amoxicillin	Selected odontogenic infections with systemic involvement	Common empirical first-line option when indicated and no relevant allergy exists.
Amoxicillin-Clavulanate	Selected infections requiring broader antimicrobial coverage	Consider when the clinical presentation and previous treatment justify broader coverage.
Metronidazole	Selected infections involving anaerobic microorganisms	Consider as an adjunct when clinically indicated.
Azithromycin	Selected patients with penicillin allergy	Evaluate allergy history, resistance patterns, and individual risks.

Clinical recommendations:

▪️ Do not prescribe antibiotics for uncomplicated pulpitis, apical periodontitis, or localized intraoral swelling when definitive dental treatment is sufficient and there is no systemic involvement.
▪️ Consider systemic antibiotics when there is progressive infection, facial swelling, fever, or other evidence of systemic involvement.
▪️ Prioritize source control through appropriate procedures, including pulp therapy, drainage, or extraction when indicated.
▪️ Verify the nature and severity of reported penicillin allergies before selecting an alternative.
▪️ Avoid unnecessary broad-spectrum antibiotics.
▪️ Reassess patients who fail to improve and evaluate whether additional intervention or referral is required.

Urgent recommendation: Patients presenting with progressive facial swelling, fever, trismus, dysphagia, respiratory difficulty, or suspected deep-space infection require immediate assessment and appropriate emergency management.

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✅ Recommendations for Local Anesthetic Use
Local anesthesia is essential for controlling procedural pain and facilitating safe, effective dental treatment in children.

Commonly used local anesthetics include:
▪️ Lidocaine 2% with epinephrine: Frequently used for infiltration and nerve block anesthesia.
▪️ Mepivacaine: Available with or without vasoconstrictor, depending on the clinical indication.
▪️ Articaine 4%: An option for selected pediatric patients, subject to age restrictions and manufacturer recommendations.

Clinical recommendations:
1. Select the anesthetic according to the child's age, weight, medical history, developmental status, and planned procedure.
2. Calculate the maximum recommended dose in mg/kg before administration.
3. Use the lowest effective dose to achieve adequate anesthesia.
4. Consider the cumulative dose when multiple injections or topical anesthetics are administered.
5. Document the anesthetic agent, concentration, total dose, injection technique, and anatomical site.
6. Provide postoperative instructions to prevent accidental biting or injury to anesthetized soft tissues.

Special precaution: Benzocaine should not be used in children younger than two years because of the risk of methemoglobinemia. Articaine product labeling generally does not recommend its use in children younger than four years.

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✅ Recommendations for Other Medications in Pediatric Dentistry
Other pharmacological agents may be necessary depending on the diagnosis and the patient's individual circumstances.

Medication Group	Clinical Indication	Prescribing Recommendation
Antifungals	Oral candidiasis	Confirm the diagnosis and select an appropriate formulation and treatment duration.
Antivirals	Selected viral infections, including herpes simplex	Consider the timing of treatment, clinical severity, and patient risk factors.
Corticosteroids	Selected inflammatory or immune-mediated conditions	Prescribe only when clearly indicated and consider potential systemic effects.
Sedative Medications	Selected patients requiring pharmacological behavior guidance	Follow established pediatric sedation protocols and monitoring requirements.

Sedation recommendation: Sedative medications should never be administered without appropriate professional supervision. Patient assessment, airway evaluation, fasting considerations when applicable, physiological monitoring, emergency preparedness, and recovery criteria must follow established pediatric sedation guidelines.

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✅ Recommendations to Prevent Medication Errors
Medication errors are an important preventable risk in pediatric dental practice. Particular attention should be given to dose calculations, drug concentrations, administration intervals, and caregiver instructions.

Common Prescribing Error	Recommended Preventive Measure
Prescribing without confirming current weight	Obtain and document weight in kilograms.
Confusing mg with mL	Calculate the dose in mg and convert using the exact product concentration.
Exceeding maximum daily doses	Verify individual doses and cumulative daily limits.
Prescribing antibiotics unnecessarily	Confirm the clinical indication before initiating treatment.
Ignoring potential drug interactions	Review medical history and current medications.
Providing unclear instructions	Give caregivers written administration instructions.

💬 Discussion
The pharmacological management of pediatric dental patients requires a balance between therapeutic effectiveness and patient safety. Appropriate medication selection depends on accurate diagnosis, developmental characteristics, body weight, medical history, and potential contraindications.
A fundamental consideration is the distinction between symptomatic treatment and definitive dental management. Analgesics can reduce pain but do not eliminate the underlying cause of pulpal or periapical disease. Similarly, antibiotics should not replace appropriate procedures such as pulpotomy, pulpectomy, drainage, or extraction when clinically indicated.
Current AAPD recommendations emphasize appropriate analgesic selection, antimicrobial stewardship, careful local anesthetic administration, and standardized safety measures during pediatric sedation.
These principles reinforce the importance of individualized prescribing rather than applying the same medication regimen to all pediatric patients.

🎯 Clinical Recommendations
For practical implementation, the following recommendations should be incorporated into routine pediatric dental practice:

▪️ Prioritize diagnosis before prescription: Identify the underlying cause of pain or infection before selecting medication.
▪️ Verify every weight-based calculation: Use the child's current weight and an updated pediatric drug reference.
▪️ Check the formulation concentration: Ensure that the prescribed volume corresponds accurately to the intended dose in milligrams.
▪️ Individualize treatment: Consider allergies, systemic conditions, concurrent medications, and contraindications.
▪️ Establish follow-up criteria: Reassess persistent pain, progressive swelling, or unexpected adverse reactions.
▪️ Document prescribing decisions: Record the indication, medication, dose, administration interval, and duration.
▪️ Educate caregivers: Provide clear written instructions and explain warning signs that require immediate evaluation.

✍️ Conclusion
Appropriate medication prescribing in pediatric dentistry requires evidence-based decisions, accurate dosage calculations, and careful consideration of each child's clinical characteristics.
Analgesics should be selected according to the nature of the pain, antibiotics reserved for infections requiring systemic antimicrobial therapy, and local anesthetics administered according to established pediatric safety recommendations.
Ultimately, applying these medication recommendations in pediatric dentistry helps minimize prescribing errors, reduce adverse drug reactions, and improve the quality and safety of dental care for children.

📚 References
✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2025). Useful medications for oral conditions. In The reference manual of pediatric dentistry (pp. 669–677). American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry.
✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2026). Acute pain management for pediatric dental patients. In The reference manual of pediatric dentistry. American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry.
✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2026). Use of antibiotic therapy for pediatric dental patients. In The reference manual of pediatric dentistry. American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry.
✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2025). Use of local anesthesia for pediatric dental patients. In The reference manual of pediatric dentistry (pp. 407–414). American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry.
✔ American Academy of Pediatrics, & American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2025). Guidelines for monitoring and management of pediatric patients before, during, and after sedation for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Pediatric Dentistry, 47(6), E100–E128.

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Stainless Steel Crown Preparation: A Clinical Guide

Stainless steel crowns (SSCs) are widely used in pediatric dentistry to restore primary molars with extensive caries, multisurface lesions, developmental defects, or following pulp therapy.

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Their durability and ability to provide full coronal coverage make them a predictable restorative option for primary teeth.

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Successful placement depends largely on adequate tooth preparation, appropriate crown selection, and correct marginal adaptation. Unlike conventional full-coverage preparations, primary molar preparation for prefabricated stainless steel crowns requires relatively limited tooth reduction, without a defined shoulder or chamfer finish line.
This guide describes the clinical preparation technique, recommended burs, approximate reduction measurements, and essential considerations for achieving adequate crown seating and retention.

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✅ Preoperative Assessment and Preparation
Before beginning tooth reduction, the following steps should be completed:

1. Clinical and radiographic assessment: Evaluate the extent of caries, remaining tooth structure, root condition, furcation status, and proximity to physiological exfoliation.
2. Crown size selection: Estimate the mesiodistal dimension of the tooth before preparation. This provides a reference for selecting the appropriate prefabricated crown.
3. Local anesthesia: Administer adequate local anesthesia because proximal reduction and subgingival crown placement may cause discomfort.
4. Isolation: Use rubber dam isolation whenever feasible. It improves visibility and protects the airway.
5. Caries removal and pulp therapy: Remove carious tissue and perform indicated pulp therapy before definitive crown cementation. A suitable core or base may be necessary when substantial coronal structure is missing.

A wooden wedge can be placed interproximally to protect the adjacent tooth and gingival tissues during proximal reduction.

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✅ Instruments and Burs for Stainless Steel Crown Preparation
The preparation is performed primarily with a high-speed handpiece under water cooling.

Instrument or Bur	Clinical Application
No. 169L or 69L tapered fissure carbide bur	Occlusal and proximal reduction.
Long, tapered diamond bur	Proximal slicing and removal of contact areas.
Flame-shaped diamond bur	Occlusal reduction and contour refinement.
Round carbide bur (#4 or #6)	Caries removal when indicated.
Spoon excavator	Manual caries excavation.
Crown scissors	Crown margin trimming.
Crown contouring and crimping pliers	Crown adaptation and marginal retention.
White stone or finishing instrument	Smoothing adjusted crown margins.

Important: The 169L bur is particularly useful because its elongated shape facilitates controlled occlusal and proximal reduction. A long, tapered diamond bur is also suitable for proximal slicing.

✅ Step-by-Step Tooth Preparation Technique

Step 1. Occlusal Reduction
Occlusal reduction is generally performed first to establish sufficient clearance for crown seating.
▪️ Recommended reduction: 1.5–2.0 mm.
▪️ Use a 169L or 69L tapered fissure bur or a flame-shaped diamond bur.
▪️ Follow the original occlusal anatomy, including the cusp inclines and central grooves.
▪️ Depth grooves can be used to control the amount of reduction.
▪️ Avoid creating a flat occlusal surface that unnecessarily removes additional tooth structure.
The objective is to provide adequate restorative space without compromising the remaining tooth structure.

Step 2. Mesial and Distal Proximal Reduction
Proximal reduction is essential because the prefabricated crown must pass beyond the maximum convexity of the proximal surfaces.
Recommended technique:
▪️ Use a long, tapered fissure diamond bur or 169L bur.
▪️ Position the bur parallel to the tooth's long axis.
▪️ Perform a controlled slicing movement through the mesial and distal contact areas.
▪️ Extend the reduction from the buccal to the lingual aspect.
▪️ Establish a smooth feather-edge cervical margin without creating a shoulder or gingival ledge.
Clinical endpoint: The proximal contacts should be completely released, allowing a periodontal probe to pass freely through the interproximal space.
The preparation should have a slight occlusal convergence, avoiding excessive removal of cervical tooth structure.
A common technical error is leaving a proximal ledge. This can prevent complete crown seating and produce an excessive marginal overhang.

Step 3. Buccal and Lingual Reduction
Unlike zirconia crowns, conventional stainless steel crowns generally do not require extensive circumferential tooth reduction.
▪️ Buccal and lingual reduction is usually minimal or unnecessary.
▪️ When prominent convexities interfere with crown seating, approximately 0.5–1.0 mm of selective reduction may be considered.
▪️ Particular attention should be given to prominent anatomical structures, including the cervical bulges and accessory cusps.
▪️ Preserve as much axial tooth structure as possible to maintain crown retention.

Step 4. Finishing and Rounding of Angles
After completing the reduction:
▪️ Round sharp line angles and point angles.
▪️ Smooth the transition between occlusal and axial surfaces.
▪️ Eliminate any remaining proximal ledges or undercuts that interfere with seating.
▪️ Maintain a continuous feather-edge cervical preparation.
▪️ Avoid creating a conventional shoulder or chamfer finish line.
The preparation should allow the crown to seat passively beyond the cervical convexity while maintaining adequate retention.

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✅ Recommended Tooth Reduction: Clinical Summary
The following table summarizes the approximate reduction values for conventional stainless steel crowns in primary molars.

Tooth Surface	Recommended Reduction	Clinical Objective
Occlusal	1.5–2.0 mm	Provide adequate occlusal clearance for crown seating.
Mesial	Selective proximal slicing; no fixed universal measurement.	Eliminate proximal contact and prevent crown interference.
Distal	Selective proximal slicing; no fixed universal measurement.	Eliminate proximal contact and facilitate complete crown seating.
Buccal	Minimal; approximately 0.5–1.0 mm if required.	Reduce prominent convexities that interfere with crown adaptation.
Lingual	Minimal; approximately 0.5–1.0 mm if required.	Facilitate crown seating while preserving tooth structure.

✅ Crown Selection, Trial Fitting, and Adaptation
Once preparation is completed, select the appropriate crown according to the mesiodistal dimension and anatomical morphology of the primary molar.

A correctly selected crown should:
▪️ Pass beyond the maximum cervical convexity.
▪️ Produce a noticeable snap fit during seating.
▪️ Extend approximately 1 mm subgingivally, without excessive tissue impingement.
▪️ Provide adequate marginal adaptation.
▪️ Restore the original occlusal anatomy and proximal contacts.


If the crown cannot seat completely, reassess the proximal reduction and cervical contour before removing additional tooth structure.
Crown trimming, contouring, and crimping should be performed when necessary to achieve appropriate marginal adaptation. Excessive crown length can cause gingival inflammation, while inadequate adaptation can compromise retention.

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✅ Cementation and Final Evaluation
Conventional stainless steel crowns are commonly cemented using glass ionomer cement (GIC) or resin-modified glass ionomer cement, following the manufacturer's instructions.

The clinical procedure includes:
1. Clean and dry the prepared tooth appropriately.
2. Fill the internal surface of the crown with the selected luting cement.
3. Seat the crown with firm, controlled pressure.
4. Remove excess cement from the cervical margins.
5. Pass dental floss through proximal contacts to eliminate residual cement.
6. Evaluate occlusion, marginal adaptation, and soft-tissue response.

The crown should restore function without significant occlusal interference. A slight initial occlusal discrepancy may be tolerated in primary dentition, but substantial premature contacts require evaluation and correction.

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💬 Discussion
The preparation of primary molars for conventional stainless steel crowns differs considerably from that required for zirconia or other esthetic prefabricated crowns. The principal objective is to achieve adequate mechanical retention through controlled occlusal and proximal reduction while preserving the maximum amount of healthy tooth structure.
Occlusal reduction of approximately 1.5–2.0 mm and complete proximal contact clearance are the most important preparation requirements. In contrast, extensive buccal and lingual reduction is generally unnecessary and may compromise retention.
An important consideration is that crown retention does not depend exclusively on tooth reduction. Proper crown selection, contouring, crimping, and marginal adaptation contribute substantially to clinical success.
The operator should also distinguish conventional stainless steel crown preparation from the Hall Technique, which involves cementing a crown without conventional tooth preparation or caries removal in appropriately selected cases.

🎯 Clinical Recommendations
For predictable clinical results, the following recommendations are particularly relevant:
1. Prioritize conservative preparation: Avoid unnecessary circumferential reduction because the natural cervical convexities contribute to crown retention.
2. Verify proximal clearance: A periodontal probe should pass freely through both proximal contacts before crown placement.
3. Evaluate crown adaptation before cementation: If the crown requires excessive force to seat, reassess the preparation rather than forcing it into position.
4. Assess the remaining tooth structure: Extensive subgingival caries may require additional restorative planning before crown placement.
5. Consider physiological exfoliation: Avoid placing crowns on primary teeth with advanced root resorption or imminent exfoliation unless a specific clinical indication justifies treatment.

✍️ Conclusion
Successful stainless steel crown preparation in primary teeth depends on controlled occlusal reduction, adequate proximal slicing, and preservation of buccal and lingual tooth structure.
The recommended technique generally involves 1.5–2.0 mm of occlusal reduction, complete elimination of proximal contacts, and a smooth feather-edge cervical preparation. Appropriate crown selection and marginal adaptation are equally important for achieving long-term restorative success.

📚 References
✔ Amlani, D. V., & Brizuela, M. (2023). Stainless steel crowns in primary dentition. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK574547/
✔ Kindelan, S. A., Day, P., Nichol, R., Willmott, N., & Fayle, S. A. (2008). UK National Clinical Guidelines in Paediatric Dentistry: Stainless steel preformed crowns for primary molars. International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry, 18(Suppl. 1), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-263X.2008.00935.x
✔ Randall, R. C. (2002). Preformed metal crowns for primary and permanent molar teeth: Review of the literature. Pediatric Dentistry, 24(5), 489–500. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12412964/
✔ Seale, N. S. (2002). The use of stainless steel crowns. Pediatric Dentistry, 24(5), 501–505. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12412965/
✔ Möhn, C., et al. (2022). Wear and marginal quality of aesthetic crowns for primary molars. International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry. https://doi.org/10.1111/ipd.12852

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