Antibiotics Contraindicated During Pregnancy: Risks and Safer Alternatives in Dental Practice

Pregnancy represents a unique physiological state in which drug prescription must balance maternal benefits and fetal safety. In dental practice, infections may require systemic antibiotic therapy; however, not all antibiotics are safe during pregnancy.

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Understanding which agents are contraindicated and identifying evidence-based safer alternatives is essential for ethical and effective dental care.

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✅ Physiological Changes in Pregnancy and Drug Safety
Pregnancy alters drug pharmacokinetics due to:

▪️ Increased plasma volume
▪️ Altered hepatic metabolism
▪️ Increased renal clearance
▪️ Placental drug transfer

These changes may enhance fetal exposure, making antibiotic selection particularly critical, especially during the first trimester, when organogenesis occurs.

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✅ Antibiotics Contraindicated in Pregnancy
Several antibiotics commonly used in dentistry are contraindicated or strongly discouraged due to documented fetal risks:

▪️ Tetracyclines (e.g., doxycycline)
Associated with permanent tooth discoloration, enamel hypoplasia, and inhibition of bone growth.
▪️ Fluoroquinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin)
Linked to cartilage and musculoskeletal toxicity in animal studies.
▪️ Chloramphenicol
Associated with “gray baby syndrome” due to immature hepatic metabolism.
▪️ Metronidazole (first trimester)
Although newer evidence suggests relative safety, caution is advised in early pregnancy, especially when alternatives exist.

Avoiding these antibiotics is strongly recommended unless no safer options are available.

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✅ Safer Antibiotic Alternatives in Dental Infections
Current clinical guidelines support the use of the following antibiotics during pregnancy:

▪️ Amoxicillin
▪️ Amoxicillin–clavulanate
▪️ Cephalexin and other first-generation cephalosporins
▪️ Clindamycin (in penicillin-allergic patients)

These agents demonstrate favorable safety profiles and are widely endorsed by professional organizations.

📊 Comparative Table: Antibiotic Safety in Pregnancy for Dental Practice

Aspect	Advantages	Limitations
Amoxicillin	Well-established safety, effective for odontogenic infections	Limited coverage against beta-lactamase–producing bacteria
Clindamycin	Safe in penicillin allergy, good anaerobic coverage	Risk of gastrointestinal adverse effects
Tetracyclines	Broad-spectrum activity	Contraindicated: fetal tooth and bone damage
Fluoroquinolones	Excellent tissue penetration	Contraindicated: potential fetal cartilage toxicity

💬 Discussion
Despite the availability of clinical guidelines, inappropriate antibiotic prescribing during pregnancy remains a concern. Fear of undertreatment may lead clinicians to prescribe broad-spectrum or contraindicated agents unnecessarily. Evidence consistently demonstrates that local dental treatment combined with safe antibiotics is effective for managing most odontogenic infections.
Close collaboration with the patient’s obstetrician is recommended in complex cases.

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🎯 Clinical Recommendations
▪️ Avoid contraindicated antibiotics, particularly tetracyclines and fluoroquinolones
▪️ Prefer amoxicillin or cephalosporins as first-line agents
▪️ Use clindamycin in penicillin-allergic patients
▪️ Prescribe antibiotics only when systemic involvement is present
▪️ Emphasize definitive dental treatment over pharmacological management alone

✍️ Conclusion
Antibiotic prescription during pregnancy requires a cautious, evidence-based approach. Several commonly used dental antibiotics pose significant fetal risks and should be avoided. Safer alternatives, including amoxicillin and clindamycin, provide effective infection control when appropriately indicated. Adhering to current guidelines ensures optimal maternal outcomes while protecting fetal health.

📚 References

✔ American Dental Association. (2023). Antibiotic use for the urgent management of dental pain and intraoral swelling.
✔ American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. (2020). Guidelines for diagnostic imaging and medication use during pregnancy.
✔ Briggs, G. G., Freeman, R. K., & Towers, C. V. (2021). Drugs in pregnancy and lactation (12th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.
✔ FDA. (2018). Pregnancy and Lactation Labeling Rule (PLLR).
✔ Sweeney, L. C., Dave, J., Chambers, P. A., & Heritage, J. (2004). Antibiotic resistance in general dental practice. British Dental Journal, 197(3), 141–145.

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Clinical Guidelines for Prescribing Xylitol in Pediatric Dentistry: Frequency, Dose, and Delivery Forms

Xylitol is a naturally occurring sugar alcohol widely studied for its anticariogenic properties. In pediatric dentistry, xylitol has gained attention as an adjunctive preventive strategy, particularly for early childhood caries (ECC).

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Understanding the appropriate dose, frequency, and delivery forms of xylitol in children is essential to maximize benefits while ensuring safety and compliance.

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✅ Mechanism of Action of Xylitol
Xylitol exerts its cariostatic effect primarily by interfering with Streptococcus mutans metabolism. Unlike fermentable sugars, xylitol cannot be metabolized by cariogenic bacteria, leading to:

▪️ Reduced bacterial adhesion
▪️ Decreased acid production
▪️ Lower salivary levels of S. mutans

Regular exposure to xylitol is necessary to achieve and maintain these effects.

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✅ Evidence-Based Indications in Pediatric Dentistry
Current evidence supports the use of xylitol for:

▪️ Caries prevention in high-risk children
▪️ Reduction of mother-to-child transmission of cariogenic bacteria
▪️ Adjunctive prevention in orthodontic patients
▪️ Supportive management of early enamel demineralization

However, xylitol should not replace fluoride, but rather complement standard preventive protocols.

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✅ Recommended Dose and Frequency
Clinical studies and systematic reviews indicate that a total daily dose of 5–10 grams of xylitol, divided into 3 to 5 exposures per day, is required to achieve a clinically significant caries-preventive effect.
Key considerations:

▪️ Single large doses are less effective
▪️ Frequency is more important than total amount
▪️ Consistent daily use is essential

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✅ Delivery Forms of Xylitol
The effectiveness of xylitol depends heavily on its delivery vehicle:

▪️ Chewing gum (most evidence-based)
▪️ Lozenges or tablets
▪️ Syrups (for younger children)
▪️ Toothpaste and wipes (limited evidence when used alone)

Products must contain 100% xylitol as the primary sweetener to be effective.

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✅ Safety and Age Considerations
Xylitol is considered safe for children when used appropriately. Mild gastrointestinal effects (e.g., bloating, diarrhea) may occur if introduced too quickly or in excessive doses.

▪️ Suitable for children older than 2 years
▪️ Syrups are preferred for preschool-aged children
▪️ Parental supervision is recommended

📊 Comparative Table: Xylitol Delivery Forms in Pediatric Dentistry

Aspect	Advantages	Limitations
Xylitol Chewing Gum	Strong evidence for caries reduction, stimulates saliva flow	Not suitable for very young children, requires compliance
Xylitol Lozenges/Tablets	Controlled dosing, good compliance in school-aged children	Choking risk in toddlers, limited availability
Xylitol Syrup	Ideal for preschool children, easy administration	Less commercial availability, dosing accuracy required
Xylitol Toothpaste	Easy integration into daily oral hygiene	Insufficient xylitol dose when used alone

💬 Discussion
Although xylitol has demonstrated moderate to strong evidence in caries prevention, variability in study design, dosing regimens, and delivery forms has led to inconsistent outcomes. The greatest benefits are observed when xylitol is used frequently and in adequate doses, particularly in chewing gum or syrup form.
Professional guidance is essential to ensure proper product selection and realistic expectations.

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🎯 Clinical Recommendations
▪️ Prescribe xylitol as an adjunctive preventive measure, not a standalone therapy
▪️ Aim for 5–10 g/day divided into multiple exposures
▪️ Select delivery forms based on child’s age and ability
▪️ Educate parents on label reading to ensure adequate xylitol content
▪️ Combine xylitol use with fluoride, dietary counseling, and oral hygiene education

✍️ Conclusion
Xylitol is a safe and evidence-based preventive agent in pediatric dentistry when prescribed correctly. Its effectiveness depends on appropriate dosing, frequent exposure, and suitable delivery forms. When integrated into a comprehensive preventive program, xylitol can play a valuable role in reducing caries risk in children, especially those at high risk.

📚 References

✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2023). Policy on the use of xylitol in caries prevention. The Reference Manual of Pediatric Dentistry.
✔ Deshpande, A., & Jadad, A. R. (2008). The impact of polyol-containing chewing gums on dental caries. Journal of the American Dental Association, 139(12), 1602–1614.
✔ Mäkinen, K. K. (2011). Sugar alcohols, caries incidence, and remineralization of caries lesions. Journal of Dental Research, 90(7), 769–775.
✔ Riley, P., Moore, D., Ahmed, F., Sharif, M. O., Worthington, H. V. (2015). Xylitol-containing products for preventing dental caries. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, CD010743.
✔ Söderling, E. M., & Hietala-Lenkkeri, A. M. (2010). Xylitol and erythritol decrease adherence of polysaccharide-producing oral streptococci. Current Microbiology, 60(1), 25–29.

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Open Apex Management in Traumatized Teeth: Latest Evidence-Based Recommendations

Dental trauma frequently affects immature permanent teeth, particularly in children and adolescents. When trauma occurs before complete root development, it often results in teeth with open apices, posing significant clinical challenges.

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Open apex management in traumatized teeth aims to control infection, preserve tooth structure, and promote continued root development or apical closure using evidence-based techniques.

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✅ Understanding Open Apex in Traumatized Teeth
An open apex is characterized by:

▪️ Incomplete root formation
▪️ Thin dentinal walls
▪️ Wide apical foramen

Traumatic injuries such as luxation, avulsion, or complicated crown fractures may compromise pulpal vitality, interrupting root development and increasing the risk of infection and fracture.
Early and accurate diagnosis is critical to determine prognosis and select the most appropriate therapeutic approach.

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✅ Diagnostic Considerations
Key diagnostic factors include:

▪️ Type and severity of trauma
▪️ Pulp vitality status
▪️ Stage of root development
▪️ Presence of infection or apical pathology

Radiographic evaluation (periapical radiographs or CBCT when indicated) is essential to assess root length, apical diameter, and periapical status.

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✅ Evidence-Based Treatment Options

➤ Apexification
Apexification is indicated for non-vital immature teeth and aims to create an apical barrier to allow obturation.
Calcium hydroxide (traditional method)
Mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA) or bioceramic materials (modern approach)
Bioceramic apexification has largely replaced long-term calcium hydroxide due to improved outcomes and reduced treatment time.

➤ Regenerative Endodontic Procedures (REPs)
Regenerative endodontics is currently the preferred approach for many immature teeth with necrotic pulps. Benefits include:
▪️ Continued root maturation
▪️ Increased dentinal wall thickness
▪️ Improved fracture resistance
This approach is supported by AAPD and IADT guidelines, particularly in young patients.

➤ Vital Pulp Therapy in Traumatized Teeth
In cases of reversible pulp damage, procedures such as:
▪️ Partial pulpotomy (Cvek pulpotomy)
▪️ Direct pulp capping
may allow continued root development (apexogenesis) when performed promptly.

📊 Comparative Table: Evidence-Based Management Options for Open Apex Teeth

Aspect	Advantages	Limitations
Calcium Hydroxide Apexification	Long history of use, induces apical hard tissue barrier	Long treatment time, increased fracture risk, multiple visits
MTA / Bioceramic Apexification	Shorter treatment time, predictable apical seal, biocompatible	No continued root development, higher material cost
Regenerative Endodontic Procedures	Promotes root maturation and dentinal thickening	Technique-sensitive, variable outcomes
Vital Pulp Therapy	Preserves pulp vitality and allows apexogenesis	Limited to cases with minimal pulpal inflammation

💬 Discussion
Recent evidence supports a paradigm shift toward biologically based therapies, particularly regenerative endodontics, for immature teeth with necrotic pulps. While apexification remains a valid option, it does not promote continued root development, which is critical for long-term tooth survival.
Case selection, patient compliance, and clinician expertise remain decisive factors in treatment success.

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🎯 Clinical Recommendations
▪️ Prioritize pulp vitality preservation whenever possible
▪️ Consider regenerative endodontic procedures as first-line therapy for necrotic immature teeth
▪️ Use bioceramic materials for apexification when regeneration is not feasible
▪️ Ensure long-term follow-up to monitor root development and periapical healing
▪️ Follow IADT and AAPD trauma guidelines strictly

✍️ Conclusion
Management of traumatized teeth with open apices requires an evidence-based, individualized approach. Advances in regenerative endodontics and bioceramic materials have significantly improved clinical outcomes. Early intervention, accurate diagnosis, and adherence to current guidelines are essential to ensure functional and long-lasting results.

📚 References

✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2023). Pulp therapy for primary and immature permanent teeth. The Reference Manual of Pediatric Dentistry.
✔ Diogenes, A., Henry, M. A., Teixeira, F. B., & Hargreaves, K. M. (2013). An update on clinical regenerative endodontics. Endodontic Topics, 28(1), 2–23.
✔ Fouad, A. F., Abbott, P. V., Tsilingaridis, G., et al. (2020). International Association of Dental Traumatology guidelines for the management of traumatic dental injuries. Dental Traumatology, 36(4), 314–330.
✔ Torabinejad, M., & Parirokh, M. (2010). Mineral trioxide aggregate: A comprehensive literature review. Journal of Endodontics, 36(1), 16–27.
✔ American Association of Endodontists. (2021). Clinical considerations for regenerative procedures.

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Is Fluoride Safe for Toddlers? Myths vs. Scientific Evidence (Updated Guide for Parents)

Fluoride has long been recognized as one of the most effective agents for preventing dental caries. However, concerns about fluoride safety in toddlers have generated confusion among parents and caregivers.

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This article clarifies common myths versus scientific evidence, explaining when fluoride is safe, when it should be limited, and how it should be used correctly in children under three years of age, according to the American Dental Association (ADA) and the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD).

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✅ Understanding Fluoride: Topical vs. Systemic Exposure
It is essential to differentiate between topical fluoride and systemic fluoride, as they have different indications, benefits, and risks.

▪️ Topical fluoride (toothpaste, varnish): acts directly on tooth enamel to prevent demineralization.
▪️ Systemic fluoride (tablets or drops): ingested and incorporated during tooth development.

👉 Scientific consensus clearly supports topical fluoride use from the eruption of the first tooth, while systemic supplementation requires strict criteria.

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✅ Common Myths About Fluoride in Toddlers

Myth 1: Fluoride Is Toxic for Young Children
While excessive fluoride intake can cause dental fluorosis, fluoride is safe when used in age-appropriate amounts. Toxicity is associated with chronic overexposure, not with recommended toothpaste use.

Myth 2: Toddlers Should Avoid Fluoride Toothpaste
Scientific evidence clearly shows that fluoride toothpaste significantly reduces early childhood caries (ECC). The key factor is dosage control, not avoidance.

Myth 3: Natural Alternatives Are Just as Effective
Non-fluoridated toothpastes may assist in plaque removal but do not provide the same level of caries prevention as fluoride-containing products.

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✅ Fluoride Supplements in Toddlers: When Are They Indicated?
According to ADA and AAPD guidelines, fluoride supplements are NOT routinely recommended for children under 3 years of age. They may only be considered if all of the following apply:

▪️ The child has high caries risk
▪️ The local drinking water has low fluoride concentration
▪️ There is professional dental or medical prescription

➡️ This recommendation aims to minimize fluorosis risk while maintaining caries prevention.

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✅ Evidence-Based Benefits of Fluoride Toothpaste in Toddlers
Scientific evidence confirms that early use of fluoridated toothpaste:

▪️ Reduces early childhood caries (ECC)
▪️ Enhances enamel remineralization
▪️ Provides long-term caries prevention
▪️ Is safe when dosage is controlled

📊 Comparative Table: Fluoride Concentrations in Dental Products by Age Group

Aspect	Advantages	Limitations
Baby toothpaste (≈1000 ppm)	Effective caries prevention with minimal fluorosis risk	Requires strict parental supervision
Children’s toothpaste (1000–1450 ppm)	Strong enamel protection during mixed dentition	Overuse may increase fluorosis risk
Adult toothpaste (1450 ppm)	Maximum caries prevention for permanent teeth	Not recommended for toddlers
Sensitivity toothpaste (1450–5000 ppm)	Enhances remineralization and reduces dentin hypersensitivity	High concentrations require professional prescription

💬 Discussion
The misconception that toddlers should avoid fluoride entirely has led to delayed preventive care and increased caries risk. Current guidelines emphasize that controlled topical fluoride exposure is both safe and essential, while systemic supplementation should be used cautiously and selectively.
Clear communication between dental professionals and caregivers is crucial to prevent misinformation and inappropriate fluoride avoidance.

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🔎 Clinical Recommendations for Parents and Caregivers
▪️ Use fluoridated toothpaste (≈1000 ppm) from the first tooth
▪️ Apply only a grain-of-rice amount
▪️ Supervise brushing to minimize swallowing
▪️ Avoid fluoride supplements unless professionally indicated
▪️ Schedule early dental visits for individualized risk assessment

✍️ Conclusion
Fluoride is safe for toddlers when used correctly. The scientific evidence strongly supports early topical fluoride use while discouraging routine systemic supplementation in children under three years of age. Understanding this distinction is key to preventing early childhood caries while minimizing adverse effects.

📚 References

✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2023). Fluoride therapy. The Reference Manual of Pediatric Dentistry.
✔ American Dental Association. (2022). Fluoride toothpaste use for young children.
✔ Wright, J. T., Hanson, N., Ristic, H., Whall, C. W., Estrich, C., & Zentz, R. R. (2014). Fluoride toothpaste efficacy and safety in children younger than 6 years. Journal of the American Dental Association, 145(2), 182–189.
✔ Slayton, R. L., Urquhart, O., Araujo, M. W. B., et al. (2018). Evidence-based clinical practice guideline on fluoride use for caries prevention. Journal of the American Dental Association, 149(10), 838–849.

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Clinical Indications for Frenectomy in Pediatric Dentistry: Evidence-Based Guidelines

Frenectomy is a common surgical procedure in pediatric dentistry aimed at correcting abnormal frenum attachments that interfere with oral function, growth, and development.

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While frenula are normal anatomical structures, pathological frenal attachments may compromise breastfeeding, speech articulation, oral hygiene, periodontal health, and orthodontic stability. Current evidence emphasizes that frenectomy should be indicated based on functional impairment rather than anatomy alone.

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✅ Clinical Indications for Frenectomy in Children

1. Breastfeeding Difficulties (Ankyloglossia)
A restrictive lingual frenum may impair tongue mobility, leading to:
▪️ Poor latch
▪️ Maternal nipple pain
▪️ Inadequate milk transfer
Early frenectomy has been shown to improve breastfeeding outcomes when functional limitation is confirmed.

2. Speech Disorders
Although controversial, frenectomy may be indicated when:
▪️ Persistent articulation disorders are present
▪️ Speech therapy alone is insufficient
▪️ Tongue mobility is objectively restricted
Speech assessment by a speech-language pathologist is essential prior to surgery.

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3. Periodontal and Oral Hygiene Concerns
Abnormal labial frenula may:
▪️ Cause gingival tension and recession
▪️ Interfere with plaque control
▪️ Compromise periodontal health
Frenectomy is recommended when gingival trauma or inflammation persists despite good oral hygiene.

4. Orthodontic Indications
A high or thick maxillary labial frenum may contribute to:
▪️ Midline diastema
▪️ Orthodontic relapse
Frenectomy is typically performed after orthodontic space closure, unless periodontal or functional issues are present earlier.

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5. Functional and Mechanical Limitations
Indications also include:
▪️ Difficulty in mastication
▪️ Altered tongue posture
▪️ Limited lip mobility affecting speech or feeding
Functional limitation remains the primary criterion for intervention.

📊 Comparative Table: Clinical Indications for Frenectomy in Pediatric Dentistry

Aspect	Advantages	Limitations
Breastfeeding improvement	Enhances latch, milk transfer, and maternal comfort	Not effective if feeding issues are unrelated to tongue restriction
Speech function	May improve articulation when tongue mobility is severely limited	Speech outcomes vary; surgery alone is often insufficient
Periodontal health	Reduces gingival tension and recession risk	Does not replace proper oral hygiene or periodontal care
Orthodontic stability	Helps prevent midline diastema relapse	Timing is critical; premature surgery may be unnecessary

💬 Discussion
Current guidelines discourage routine frenectomy based solely on frenal appearance. Evidence-based practice supports a multidisciplinary diagnostic approach, involving pediatric dentists, orthodontists, lactation consultants, and speech therapists. Advances in laser technology have improved surgical outcomes; however, the decision to perform frenectomy must remain clinically justified. Overdiagnosis and unnecessary procedures remain concerns in pediatric populations.

🔎 Recommendations
Perform frenectomy only when functional impairment is clearly documented
Use validated assessment tools for tongue mobility and function
Collaborate with speech therapists and lactation specialists
Avoid prophylactic frenectomy in asymptomatic children
Ensure proper postoperative exercises and follow-up

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✍️ Conclusion
Frenectomy in pediatric dentistry is a valuable therapeutic procedure when appropriately indicated. Modern evidence supports a functional, patient-centered approach, ensuring that surgical intervention improves quality of life, oral function, and long-term outcomes. Careful diagnosis and interdisciplinary collaboration are essential to avoid overtreatment and maximize clinical success.

📚 References

✔ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2023). Policy on management of the frenulum in pediatric dental patients. Pediatric Dentistry, 45(6), 81–85.
✔ Buryk, M., Bloom, D., & Shope, T. (2011). Efficacy of neonatal release of ankyloglossia: A randomized trial. Pediatrics, 128(2), 280–288. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-0077
✔ Kotlow, L. A. (2015). Diagnosis and treatment of ankyloglossia and tied maxillary fraenum in infants. Journal of Pediatric Dental Care, 21(2), 1–9.
✔ Messner, A. H., & Lalakea, M. L. (2002). Ankyloglossia: Controversies in management. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 64(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-5876(02)00054-0
✔ Suter, V. G. A., & Bornstein, M. M. (2009). Ankyloglossia: Facts and myths in diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Periodontology, 80(8), 1204–1219. https://doi.org/10.1902/jop.2009.090086

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